{"id":144,"date":"2019-04-17T19:44:00","date_gmt":"2019-04-17T19:44:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/mgmt805\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/"},"modified":"2023-03-24T15:13:06","modified_gmt":"2023-03-24T15:13:06","slug":"the-history-of-leadership-theories","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/mgmt805\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/","title":{"raw":"13.2 The History of Leadership Theories","rendered":"13.2 The History of Leadership Theories"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>Describe the history of leadership as a topic inside organizational behavior<\/h2>\nWe can all recognize a good leader when we see one, but defining what qualities and practices a good leader has can be difficult. In fact,\u00a0the one thing that researchers seem to agree on regarding leadership is that they don\u2019t always agree.\n\nAre great leader defined by their accomplishments? Are leaders defined by the appraisal of their followers? Is nature or nurture the more important factor in determining leadership? Can leadership be learned, or is there a magical combination of trait, behavior and situation that allows leaders to rise to the occasion? Historically, in western civilization, we\u2019ve struggled to answer these questions, and in the next few sections we\u2019ll give you enough information that you can start contemplating these issues along with us.\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n \t<li>Discuss our understanding of leadership from the historical perspective<\/li>\n \t<li>Describe the early trait approach<\/li>\n \t<li>Describe the behavioral approach<\/li>\n \t<li>Describe the contingency approach and its variations<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>The History of Leadership<\/h2>\nA leader may be considered a leader because of a formal relationship, provided by the possession of managerial rank in an organization. Or a leader can be informal, someone who steps up and provides that guidance from within a group of people, not necessarily the person who has been given decision making authority. (As we'll discuss later in this module, not every leader is a manager and not every manager is a leader.)\n\nThose are some fairly basic concepts about leaders and leadership. How did we arrive at what we understand about leadership today? Historically speaking, it\u2019s been quite a ride. Let\u2019s take a trip way back and take a look at how far we\u2019ve come. (Note: this text will focus on the history of European and North American history, since we're addressing a largely US-based audience. There is of course, a much broader and diverse history of leaders across the world not mentioned here.)\n<h3>Leadership\u2014Historically Speaking<\/h3>\n<img class=\"alignright wp-image-731\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4052\/2019\/04\/19181256\/Arth_tapestry2.jpg\" alt=\"Tapestry depicting King Arthur sitting on a throne, holding a banner.\" width=\"250\" height=\"439\">There are a few different varieties of King Arthur\u2019s story, one of the most prominent folklore stories from England. Most versions tell either of how Arthur became king when the Lady of the Lake gave him a sword called Excalibur, or of how he was the only one capable of pulling the sword from a stone. Either way, he was the chosen one, he possessed a certain something, and, by divine right, he became the king of Britain.\n\nThere\u2019d be very few leaders among us today if we relied on a pulling-sword-from-stone selection process. Or, more likely, we\u2019d watch the process unfold and then say, \u201cHey, nice trick, but why should I listen to you?\u201d Concepts in leadership have changed since the sixth century.\n\nSurely, anyone who knew the legend of King Arthur understood that it helped illustrate the concept that those who led were born and not made. Early concepts of monarchy included the element that king was a divine choice and was bound to no earthly rules. The right to rule was derived directly from the will of God. Those that were not kings were instead heroes, possessors of God-given skills that helped them achieve victory in battle. Some of these heroes were mythological, like Odysseus, descendant of the gods and hero of the Trojan War, and others, like Alexander the Great and Hannibal Barca, earned their distinction in battles won against nearly insurmountable odds, immortalized in stories retold over generations.\n\nPlato, Plutarch, Lao-Tzu and even Machiavelli had an impact on how these rulers and heroes were defined in their instruction and shared opinions of what it meant to be a leader. Of course, they didn\u2019t use the word \u201cleader.\u201d The word \u201cleader\u201d as we use it today didn\u2019t come into the English language until the 19th century.\n\nStill, thanks to them, the \u201cleader as hero\u201d concept had been a clear definition for hundreds of years. In 1840, Scottish writer Thomas Carlyle stated that \u201cthe history of the world is but the biography of great men.\u201d The Great Man Theory took hold\u2014the idea that history can be explained by the impact of great men and the decisions they made. These great men were identified by their charisma, intelligence, and wisdom. Carlyle suggested that these great men shaped history through these personal attributes and, yes, divine inspiration, too.\u00a0(And since he lived in Scotland in the 1840s, there was no mention of women.)\n\nIn Carlyle\u2019s book <em>On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in Society<\/em> (Carlyle, 1840), the author dove into the lives of several men he deemed \u201cheroes,\u201d like Muhammed, Richard Wagner, Shakespeare, Martin Luther, and Napoleon. He believed that history \u201cturned\u201d on the decisions of these men, and encouraged others to study these heroes as a way of discovering one\u2019s own true nature.\n\nStudies were conducted on subjects who were already leaders, often members of aristocracy that had inherited their positions. Very few people with lower status had the opportunity to lead, and this contributed to the idea that these leadership qualities were something one was born with.\n\nThis Great Man approach was pretty fashionable in the 19th century, particularly with history professors who deferred to biographies of great men to teach their subject, rather than social histories. After all, it seems as if, when we faced some of our most difficult moments in history, a man emerged to lead us successfully through it. The existence of Abraham Lincoln, Theodore Roosevelt, and others like them only seemed to prove the theory.\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Practice Question<\/h3>\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/13984\n\n<\/div>\nThe Great Man Theory was a predecessor of the Early Trait Theory stage of leadership research. In the United States, we were well into the experience of our industrial revolution, and it was clear that leaders weren\u2019t just heroes and rulers. At the turn of the twentieth century, we were starting to understand the nuances of management and what it meant to be more strategic in leading. Could personality traits predict success in leadership?\n<h2>Early Trait Approach<\/h2>\nFrom the turn of the century until the 1940s, most leadership studies focused on the personality traits of individuals that made them leaders and not followers. Thomas Carlyle set the stage for the great man theory, and other researchers followed suit, trying to determine what kind of traits made a great leader great.\n\nFrancis Galton, an English scientist and researcher, wrote a book <em>Hereditary Genius<\/em> in 1869, which was the first social scientific attempt to study genius and greatness (Galton, 1869). To determine if human ability was hereditary, he chose \u201ceminent\u201d men (men who exhibited extraordinary leadership qualities) and counted the relatives to see how many additional \u201ceminent\u201d men were in their background. Galton hypothesized that there would be a higher percentage of \u201ceminent\u201d men in their lineage than in the general population. His testing (for which he invented methods of historiometry) showed that numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when going from first degree to second degree relatives, and from second to third. He took this as evidence of the inheritance of abilities.\n\nAs you might guess, even Galton recognized the limitations of these studies. He went on to study twins and adopted children, testing the \u201cnature vs. nurture\u201d term that he\u2019d coined, but never strayed too far from the idea that qualities were inherited instead of taught.\n\nIn the early 1900s, American psychologist (and, like Galton, a eugenicist) Lewis Terman studied gifted children, and he conducted a variety of studies on the children and their parents to reinforce the idea of inheritance of abilities. And in the July, 1928 issue of <em>The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology<\/em>, researcher W.H. Cowley wrote,\n<blockquote>The approach to the study of leadership usually has been and perhaps always must be through the study of traits. Leadership obviously is not a simple trait but rather a complex of main traits fashioned together as a unity. An adequate appraisal of leadership would reduce this complex to its individual units, and any study of leadership to be of value should produce a list of traits which go together to make the leader. (Cowley 1928)<\/blockquote>\nIn 1948, after years of experiments and studies, researcher Ralph Stogdill determined that leadership exists between persons in a social situation, and that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations (Stogdill, 1948). This marked the end of researchers\u2019 tenacious ideas that individual differences characterized leadership, or that they\u2019d be able to predict leadership effectiveness. In the next sections, we\u2019ll talk about the behavioral and contingency approaches these new theories sparked. But we have to acknowledge here that this wasn\u2019t the end of studying traits in leadership. The trait approach wasn\u2019t done\u2014it just took a break.\n<h3>Looking at Trait Theory Today<\/h3>\nSo, if studying leadership traits isn\u2019t useful, why are we talking about it? Well, surprisingly, interest in the topic continues, supported by media and general public opinion. Think about how media describes business leaders like Mary Barra and Bill Gates. They\u2019re innovative. They make tough decisions. They\u2019re philanthropic. The media is constantly throwing their personality traits out there for us to digest.\n\nTwelve percent of all the research published on the topic of leadership between 1990 and 2004 contains the keywords \u201cpersonality\u201d and \u201cleadership.\u201d Interest persists, and new information has been uncovered. Researcher Steven J. Zaccaro pointed out that, even in Stogdill\u2019s argument against traits, his studies contained conclusions suggesting that individual differences can still predict leader effectiveness.\n\nRemember that Cowley wrote that traits collectively lent themselves to leadership effectiveness. Taking a page from this book, Zaccaro and colleagues developed the trait-leadership model that attempted to address traits and their influence on a leader\u2019s effectiveness. The premise of the Trait-Leadership Model (Zaccaro, Kemp, Bader, 2004) is that (a) leadership emerges from the combined influence of multiple traits (integrated, rather than individual, traits) and (b) leader traits differ in their proximal influence on leadership.\n\nZaccaro\u2019s model looks like this:\n\n<img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-748 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4052\/2019\/04\/19184444\/ZaccaroModel.jpg\" alt=\"Diagram of Zaccaro's model. It starts with a Venn diagram of three distal attributes: personality, cognitive abilities, and motive values. There is an arrow to a Venn diagram of three proximal attributes: social appraisal skills, problem-solving skills, and expertise\/tacit knowledge. There is an arrow to the leadership criteria. The leadership criteria is the leader process, which goes into leader emergence, leader effectiveness, and leader advancement and promotion. The leader's operating environment affects the leadership criteria and proximal attributes. \" width=\"1122\" height=\"373\">\n\nThis model comes with a list of leader traits, which Zaccaro reminds us are always not exhaustive. But traits based on his 2004 model include extraversion, agreeableness, openness, neuroticism, creativity, and others.\n\nTwo other models have emerged in recent trait leadership studies. The Leader Trait Emergency Effectiveness Model, created by researcher Timothy Judge and colleagues, combines behavioral genetics and evolutionary psychology theories of how traits are developed and puts them into a model that attempts to explain leader emergence and effectiveness. A second model, the Integrated Model of Leader Traits, Behaviors, and Effectiveness, created by D. S. Derue and colleagues, combines traits and behaviors in predicting leader effectiveness and tested the mediation effect of leader behaviors on the relationship between leader traits and effectiveness.\n\nIn spite of the increased focus of researchers on trait theory, it remains among the more criticized theories of leadership. Some argue it\u2019s too simplistic. Others criticize that it studies leadership effectiveness as it\u2019s perceived by followers, rather than actual leadership effectiveness. But we want to leave you with two thoughts on the trait approach before we move on:\n<ul>\n \t<li>Traits can predict leadership. Years ago the evidence suggested otherwise, but the presence of proper framework for classifying and organizing traits now help us understand this better.<\/li>\n \t<li>Traits do a better job of predicting the emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership than they do distinguishing between effective and ineffective leadership.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nStogdill\u2019s comments encouraged researchers to look in other directions back in the late 1940s. If it\u2019s not the personality traits that predict effective leadership, perhaps it\u2019s the behavior of those leaders we should be studying. Let\u2019s take a look at the behavioral approach to leadership next.\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Practice Question<\/h3>\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/13985\n\n<\/div>\n<h2>Behavioral Approach<\/h2>\nIf the answer isn\u2019t in the traits a leader exhibits, perhaps it lies in what a leader does. Behavioral theories of leadership suggest that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders. The implications for this idea are pretty big. Think about it. The trait approach can help you pick out a leader, or predict that an individual might step up to leadership. The behavioral approach suggests that leaders can be trained.\n\nLet\u2019s head back to the 1940s, around the time that Stogdill sent leadership studies off in a different direction, and look at the emergence of a few different instances of behavioral leadership research.\n<h3>The Ohio State University Studies<\/h3>\nBack in the late 1940s, research began at The Ohio State University to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior.<sup>1<\/sup> The team began with a list of over a thousand different dimensions and eventually narrowed the list to two leadership behaviors as they were described by employees. Those behaviors were task-focused and people focused.\n\nThose leaders that are concerned with the task are engaging in behaviors called initiation of structure. This doesn\u2019t mean that they don\u2019t care about people\u2014it means that they approach leadership from the task point of view. They organize and define the task so that followers can achieve the goal. For instance, a CEO might want to acquire a new company for a conglomerate. In the initiation of structure framework, the CEO will bring in his or her senior staff and start to direct them as to how and when he or she believes the work should be done.\n\nAlternatively, consideration is a leadership behavior aimed at creating mutual trust and respect with their followers. An example of consideration might be a leader who, in a time of change and turmoil in an organization, walks the floor of the assembly plant to see how workers are faring, or meets with his team to determine if they need extra support.\n\nExtensive research showed that leaders who rated high in both initiation of structure and consideration (a \u201chigh-high\u201d) were more likely to achieve high employee performance and satisfaction more frequently than those that scored high in only one of the two categories, or low in both categories. However, \u201chigh-high\u201d scoring did not always result in positive consequences. Those leaders that scored high in initiation of structure often experienced higher levels of grievances, absenteeism and turnover. Others found that high consideration scores for a leader resulted in lower performance evaluation scores from that leader\u2019s own manager.\n\nThe Ohio State team suggested that \u201chigh-high\u201d generally resulted in positive outcomes but there were enough exceptions to indicate that situational factors also needed to be considered.\n<h3>The University of Michigan Studies<\/h3>\nStudies at the University of Michigan were conducted around the same time the Ohio State research was going on, and they had similar research objectives.<sup>2<\/sup> The University of Michigan team wanted to locate behavioral characteristics of leaders that appeared to be related to measures of performance effectiveness.\n\nThe University of Michigan team also came up with two dimensions of leadership behavior. They labeled them employee-oriented and production oriented.\n\nEmployee-oriented leaders emphasized interpersonal relations. They took a personal interest in the needs of employees and embraced individual differences among members. The production-oriented leaders tended to emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job. Their main concern was accomplishing objectives and the group members were just a means to reach that goal.\n\nThe University of Michigan team concluded that employee-oriented leaders were associated with higher group productivity and higher job satisfaction, and production-oriented leaders tended to score low in both those areas.\n<h3>Blake and Mouton\u2019s Managerial Grid<\/h3>\nIn 1964, researchers Robert Blake and Jane Moutin introduced their managerial grid as a graphic portrayal of a two-dimensional view of leadership.<sup>3<\/sup>\n\nLike the Ohio State and University of Michigan studies, Blake and Mouton concentrated on concern for production and concern for people. They scored each of those areas on a scale of 1 (low) to 9 (high) to create 81 different positions in which the leader\u2019s style might fall. The result was five different types of behavioral styles.\n\n<img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-708\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4052\/2019\/04\/17194934\/ManagerialGrid.jpg\" alt=\"Blake and Mouton\u2019s Managerial Grid. The x-axis has concern for production, rated from low (one) to high (nine). The y-axis has concern for people, rated from low (one) to high (nine). There are five types of management on the grid. Indifferent management has low concern for production and low concern for people. Accommodating management has low concern for production and high concern for people. Dictatorial management has high concern for production and low concern for people. Sound management has high concern for production and high concern for people.\" width=\"650\" height=\"494\">\n<ul>\n \t<li>In the <strong>accommodating management style<\/strong>, leaders yield and comply. They pay attention to the comfort of the employees in hopes that they\u2019ll be productive. This style often results in happy employees but is not necessarily productive.<\/li>\n \t<li>In the <strong>indifferent management style<\/strong>, leaders evade and elude. They don\u2019t give much consideration to people or production, and try to fly under the radar a bit without getting into trouble.<\/li>\n \t<li>In the <strong>sound management style<\/strong>, leaders contribute and commit. They pay high attention to both people and production and encourage teamwork and commitment. It\u2019s very Theory Y!<\/li>\n \t<li>In the <strong>dictatorial management style<\/strong>, leaders control and dominate. They pay attention to production but not to people, and use rules and punishment to achieve goals. It\u2019s very Theory X!<\/li>\n \t<li>In the <strong>status quo management style<\/strong>, leaders balance and compromise. They are middle-of-the-road, and as a result, people needs and production needs aren\u2019t necessarily met.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nManagers performed best when they scored in the \u201csound\u201d area. But the grid offered better framework for conceptualizing leadership style rather than presenting any new information in clarifying leadership behaviors, because there\u2019s very little substantive evidence to support the conclusion that a sound style is most effective in all situations.\n<h3>The Scandinavian Studies<\/h3>\nWe\u2019re going to fast forward a few years to the 1990s, when Scandinavian researchers Ekvall and Arvonen began to reassess the idea that there were only two dimensions that captured the essence of leadership behavior.<sup>4<\/sup> n a changing world, they decided, leaders would exhibit development-oriented behavior. By exhibiting development-oriented behavior, these leaders would value experimentation, seek out new ideas and generate and implement change.\n\nIn their review of the Ohio State studies, Ekvall and Arvonen found that the researchers had identified behaviors such as \u201cpushes new ways of doing things\u201d and \u201cencourages employees to do new things,\u201d but those items didn\u2019t explain much about leadership in 1940s, when those behaviors didn\u2019t have as great an impact. Their studies indicate that just concentrating on two different dimensions of behavior may not be adequate to capture leadership in the twenty-first century.\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Practice Question<\/h3>\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/13986\n\n<\/div>\nBehavioral theories had modest success in identifying consistent relationships between leadership behavior and group performance. But none of these consider the situation as a factor. Would Ralph Nader have been as successful a consumer activist if he\u2019d been in Nicaragua and not the United States? Would Franklin Delano Roosevelt have been as successful leading the nation through the Revolutionary or the Civil Wars? None of these behavioral theories could clarify these situational differences. So, as we continued to grow in our theories of leadership, we started to look at contingency theories\u2014theories that considered the leader <em>and<\/em> the situation.\n<h2>Contingency Approach<\/h2>\nWe know that traits and behaviors both have an impact on a leader\u2019s success, but what about the situation? This is the contingency approach. Circumstances might lead to peers and followers shunning a particular leader and then seeing him or her in a different way later on. Since the 1960s, the guiding light for research has been the assumption that what makes a leader great depends on the situation.\n\nThe failure of researchers to arrive at any consistent results around leadership in the mid-twentieth center led to the study of situational influence. As they started to realize that a certain style and set of skills were appropriate for one situation and failed in another, they sought to determine which conditions matched which styles and skills. This led to several theories on isolating key situational variables, and we\u2019ll look at a few of those now.\n<h3>Fiedler Model<\/h3>\nFred Fiedler developed the first comprehensive contingency model for leadership and proposed that effective group performance depended on a solid match between the leader\u2019s style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader.<sup>5<\/sup>\n\nFiedler started his study by determining whether a leader was more task oriented or relationship oriented in his or her behavioral traits. He determined to measure the leader\u2019s propensity to one trait or another by developing the least preferred coworker questionnaire (LPC). The least preferred coworker asked leaders to react to sixteen sets of contrasting adjectives that would describe their least preferred coworker. LPCs respondents that described their least preferred coworker in relatively positive terms, it stood to reason that the leader employed a relationship based approach. Those that described their least favorite coworker unfavorably were deemed to be more task oriented.\n\nIt\u2019s worth noting that about sixteen percent of those taking the evaluation scored right in the middle and fall outside the predictions of this theory. So the rest of our discussion concentrates on that 84% of respondents that took one side or the other.\n\nAt this point, Fiedler sought to define situations by which to compare these results. He did, in fact, identify three contingency dimensions that he was convinced defined the key situation factors that determine leadership effectiveness. Those situations were\n<ul>\n \t<li><strong>Leader-member relations:<\/strong> the degree to which members have confidence and trust in their leader (good or poor).<\/li>\n \t<li><strong>Task structure:<\/strong> the degree to which job assignments are proceduralized (high or low).<\/li>\n \t<li><strong>Position power:<\/strong> the degree of influence a leader has over power variables, such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions and salary increases (strong or weak).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nFiedler then started comparing task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders and their performances, based on the twenty-four possible combinations of the situations above, and this was the result:\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_753\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1400\"]<img class=\"wp-image-753 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4052\/2019\/04\/19194019\/FiedlerModel.jpg\" alt=\"The Fiedler Model shows the task-oriented performance, relationship-oriented performance, leader-member relations, task structure, and leader position power of eight categories of leaders. Category 1 has good task oriented performance, poor relationship performance, good leader-member relations, high task structure, and strong leader position power. Category 2 has good task oriented performance, poor relationship performance, good leader-member relations, high task structure, and weak leader position power. Category 3 has good task oriented performance, poor relationship performance, good leader-member relations, low task structure, and strong leader position power. Category 4 has poor task oriented performance, good relationship performance, good leader-member relations, low task structure, and weak leader position power. Category 5 has poor task oriented performance, good relationship performance, poor leader-member relations, high task structure, and strong leader position power. Category 6 has average task oriented performance, average relationship performance, poor leader-member relations, high task structure, and weak leader position power. Category 7 has good task oriented performance, poor relationship performance, poor leader-member relations, low task structure, and strong leader position power. Category 8 has good task oriented performance, poor relationship performance, poor leader-member relations, low task structure, and weak leader position power.\" width=\"1400\" height=\"576\"> Figure 1. Fiedler Model[\/caption]\n\nFiedler concluded that task-oriented leaders tended to perform better when situations were very favorable or very unfavorable to them. Relationship oriented leaders perform better when situations are moderately favorable. Fiedler then modified his conclusions to state that task-oriented leaders performed better in situations of high or low control, while relationship-oriented leaders performed better in situations of moderate control.\n\nWhile there are problems with the LPC evaluation and studies show that respondents\u2019 scores are not stable, there is considerable evidence to support Fiedler\u2019s conclusions. Still, it\u2019s often difficult in practice to determine the quality of leader-member relations, the structure of task and how much position power the leader possesses.\n<h3>Cognitive Resource Theory<\/h3>\nMore recently, Fiedler and an associate, Joe Garcia, reconceptualized Fiedler\u2019s original theory, this time focusing on the role of stress as a form of situational unfavorableness and how a leader\u2019s intelligence and experience influence his or her reaction to it.<sup>6 <\/sup>\n\nEssentially, Fiedler and Garcia propose that it\u2019s difficult for leaders to think logically or analytically when they\u2019re under stress, and how their intelligence and experience impacts their effectiveness in low- and high-stress situations. In other words, bright individuals perform worse in stressful situations, and experienced people perform worse in low-stress situations. This theory is garnering solid research support.\n<h3>Hersey and Blanchard\u2019s Situational Theory<\/h3>\nThe term \u201csituational leadership\u201d is most commonly derived from and connected with Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard\u2019s <strong>Situational Leadership Theory<\/strong>. This approach to leadership suggests the need to match two key elements appropriately: the leader\u2019s leadership style and the followers\u2019 maturity or preparedness levels.\n\nThe theory identifies four main leadership approaches:\n<ul>\n \t<li><strong>Telling:<\/strong> Directive and authoritative approach. The leader makes decisions and tells employees what to do.<\/li>\n \t<li><strong>Selling:<\/strong> The leader is still the decision-maker, but he communicates and works to persuade the employees rather than simply directing them.<\/li>\n \t<li><strong>Participating:<\/strong> The leader works with the team members to make decisions together. He supports and encourages them and is more democratic.<\/li>\n \t<li><strong>Delegating:<\/strong> The leader assigns decision-making responsibility to team members but oversees their work.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nIn addition to these four approaches to leadership, there are also four levels of follower maturity:\n<ul>\n \t<li><strong>Level M1:<\/strong> Followers have low competence and low commitment.<\/li>\n \t<li><strong>Level M2:<\/strong> Followers have low competence, but high commitment.<\/li>\n \t<li><strong>Level M3:<\/strong> Followers have high competence, but low commitment and confidence.<\/li>\n \t<li><strong>Level M4:<\/strong> Followers have high competence and high commitment and confidence.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1706\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1972\/2017\/07\/25043844\/mod9_01.png\" alt=\"The four maturity levels are M1: low competence, low commitment; M2: low competence, high commitment; M3: high competence, low commitment\/confidence; and M4: high competence, high commitment\/confidence\" width=\"600\" height=\"355\">\n\nIn Hersey and Blanchard\u2019s approach, the key to successful leadership is matching the proper leadership style to the corresponding maturity level of the employees. As a general rule, each of the four leadership styles is appropriate for the corresponding employee maturity level:\n<ul>\n \t<li>Telling style works best for leading employees at the M1 level (low competence, low commitment).<\/li>\n \t<li>Selling style works best for leading employees at the M2 level (low competence, high commitment).<\/li>\n \t<li>Participating style works best for leading employees at the M3 level (high competence, low commitment\/confidence).<\/li>\n \t<li>Delegating style works best for leading employees at the M4 level (high competence, high commitment\/confidence).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n[caption id=\"attachment_1720\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"550\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1720\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1972\/2017\/07\/25173154\/mod9_02_edited.png\" alt=\"M1 corresponds to telling style, M2 corresponds to selling style, M3 corresponds to participating style, and M4 corresponds to delegating style\" width=\"550\" height=\"375\"> Maturity levels and leadership styles[\/caption]\n\nIdentifying the employee maturity level becomes a very important part of the process, and the leader must have the willingness and ability to use any of the four leadership styles as needed.\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Practice Question<\/h3>\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/13987\n\n<\/div>\n<h3>Leader-Member Exchange Theory<\/h3>\nThe leader-member exchange theory considers leaders relationships with people, and proposed that, because of time constraints, leaders establish relationships with a small group of their followers.<sup>7\u00a0 <\/sup>These individuals make up an \u201cin-group\u201d and are more likely to receive attention from the leader. Other followers fall into the \u201cout-group.\u201d\n\nHow the leader chooses the \u201cin-group\u201d is somewhat unclear, but it\u2019s assumed that the leader chooses the individuals based on their similarities to his or her own characteristics, or because of their higher competence levels.\n\nResearch testing the leader-member exchange theory has been generally supportive and provides evidence that leaders do differentiate among followers, that these disparities aren\u2019t random, and that the individuals in the \u201cin-group\u201d will perform better, have lower turnover, etc.\n<h3>Path-Goal Theory<\/h3>\nIn the Path-Goal theory, it\u2019s the leader\u2019s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and\/or support to ensure their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization.<sup>8\u00a0 <\/sup>Developed by Robert House, he determined that there were four types of leaders that played into this theory:\n<ul>\n \t<li><strong>The supportive leader:<\/strong> is friendly and shows concerns for the followers.<\/li>\n \t<li><strong>The participative leader:<\/strong> checks with followers for suggestions before making a decision.<\/li>\n \t<li><strong>The directive leader:<\/strong> lets followers know what work is to be done, gives guidance on how to accomplish tasks.<\/li>\n \t<li><strong>The achievement-oriented leader:<\/strong> sets challenging goals, expects followers to perform at high levels.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nThe factors are environmental (task structure, formal authority system, work group) and subordinate (locus of control, experience, perceived ability). The environmental factors are beyond followers\u2019 control, and the subordinate factors are, obviously within their control. Environmental factors dictate which of the leadership behaviors above will be most effective, and the subordinate factors dictate how those leadership behaviors are interpreted.\n\nIn other words, if a directive leader is paired with followers who already have a high ability and experience, the leader\u2019s skills are likely to be perceived as redundant. The followers don\u2019t need someone to tell them what to do. They\u2019d be more successful with an achievement-oriented leader.\n\nResearch supports this theory. It\u2019s logical that a leader will be successful if he or she is \u201cfilling in the blanks\u201d where environmental and subordinate factors are concerned, and giving the team what they don\u2019t already have.\n<h3>Leader-Participation Model<\/h3>\nVictor Vroom, the researcher who developed the expectancy framework by which we compared motivational approaches, also has things to say about leadership.[footnote]Vroom, Victor H.; Yetton, Phillip W. (1973). Leadership and Decision-Making. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh[\/footnote] He paired with Phillip Yetton to create a leader-participation model, and then with Arthur Jago to create a revised one. The revised model, the more widely accepted of the two, provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations.\n\nIn fact, there are 12 contingency variables, 8 problem types, and 5 leadership styles to be considered in the process, and that\u2019s part of what makes the model difficult for managers to use. Beyond the complexity of the model, this model doesn\u2019t take stress, intelligence and experience into consideration as important variables.\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Practice Question<\/h3>\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/13988\n\n<\/div>\nAll of these contingency models, which have been discussed and contemplated for more than forty years, seem to suggest, above all things, that there is no one right way to lead. \u00a0But don\u2019t worry, that doesn\u2019t mean we\u2019ve wasted our time!\n<div class=\"footnotes\">\n<ol>\n \t<li id=\"footnote-690-1\">Stogdill, R and A. E. Coons, Leader Behavior: <em>Its Description and Measuremen<\/em>t, 1951 <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-1\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li id=\"footnote-690-2\">Kahn, R and D. Katz. \u201cLeadership Practices in Relation to Productivity and Morale,\u201d <em>Group Dynamics: Research and Theory,<\/em> 1960 <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-2\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li id=\"footnote-690-3\">Blake, R. R. and J. S. Mouton. <em>The Managerial Grid<\/em>. 1964 <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-3\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li id=\"footnote-690-4\">Ekvall, G and J. Arvonen, \u201cChange-Centered Leadership: An Extension of the Two-Dimensional Model,\u201d <em>Scandinavian Journal of Management<\/em>, 1991. M. Lindell and G. Rosenqvist, \u201cIs there a Third Management Style?\u201d <em>Finnish Journal of Business Economics 3<\/em>, 1992. M. Lindell and G. Rosenqvist, \u201cManagement Behavior Dimensions and Development Orientation,\u201d <em>Leadership Quarterly<\/em>, 1992. <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-4\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li id=\"footnote-690-5\">Fiedler, F. E. (1967) <em>A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness<\/em>, New York: McGraw-Hill. <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-5\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li id=\"footnote-690-6\">Fiedler, F. E. and Garcia, J. E. (1987) <em>New Approaches to Leadership, Cognitive Resources and Organizational Performance<\/em>, New York: John Wiley and Sons. <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-6\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li id=\"footnote-690-7\">Dienesch, R.M. and Liden, R.C. (1986) <em>Leader-Member Exchange Model of Leadership: A Critique and Further Development.<\/em> Academy of Management Review, 11, 618-634. <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-7\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li id=\"footnote-690-8\">House, Robert J.; Mitchell, T.R. (1974). \"Path-goal theory of leadership\". <em>Journal of Contemporary Business. 3:<\/em> l\u201397. <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-8\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li id=\"footnote-690-9\">Vroom, Victor H.; Yetton, Phillip W. (1973). Leadership and Decision-Making. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-9\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<hr>\n\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div>\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\n \t<li>The History of Leadership Theories. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Freedom Learning Group. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n \t<li>Image: Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n \t<li>Image: Fiedler Model. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div>\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\n \t<li>Hersey and Blanchard Situational Theory. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Aaron Spencer and Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-principlesofmanagement\/chapter\/situational-theories-of-leadership\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-principlesofmanagement\/chapter\/situational-theories-of-leadership\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Specific attribution<\/div>\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\n \t<li>Untitled. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Miguel A. Padrinan. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Pixabay. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/career-paper-origami-leader-marina-1738216\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/career-paper-origami-leader-marina-1738216\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Pixabay License<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div>\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\n \t<li>Arthur Tapestry. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Unknown. Located at: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Arth_tapestry2.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Arth_tapestry2.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>","rendered":"<h2>Describe the history of leadership as a topic inside organizational behavior<\/h2>\n<p>We can all recognize a good leader when we see one, but defining what qualities and practices a good leader has can be difficult. In fact,\u00a0the one thing that researchers seem to agree on regarding leadership is that they don\u2019t always agree.<\/p>\n<p>Are great leader defined by their accomplishments? Are leaders defined by the appraisal of their followers? Is nature or nurture the more important factor in determining leadership? Can leadership be learned, or is there a magical combination of trait, behavior and situation that allows leaders to rise to the occasion? Historically, in western civilization, we\u2019ve struggled to answer these questions, and in the next few sections we\u2019ll give you enough information that you can start contemplating these issues along with us.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Discuss our understanding of leadership from the historical perspective<\/li>\n<li>Describe the early trait approach<\/li>\n<li>Describe the behavioral approach<\/li>\n<li>Describe the contingency approach and its variations<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>The History of Leadership<\/h2>\n<p>A leader may be considered a leader because of a formal relationship, provided by the possession of managerial rank in an organization. Or a leader can be informal, someone who steps up and provides that guidance from within a group of people, not necessarily the person who has been given decision making authority. (As we&#8217;ll discuss later in this module, not every leader is a manager and not every manager is a leader.)<\/p>\n<p>Those are some fairly basic concepts about leaders and leadership. How did we arrive at what we understand about leadership today? Historically speaking, it\u2019s been quite a ride. Let\u2019s take a trip way back and take a look at how far we\u2019ve come. (Note: this text will focus on the history of European and North American history, since we&#8217;re addressing a largely US-based audience. There is of course, a much broader and diverse history of leaders across the world not mentioned here.)<\/p>\n<h3>Leadership\u2014Historically Speaking<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright wp-image-731\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4052\/2019\/04\/19181256\/Arth_tapestry2.jpg\" alt=\"Tapestry depicting King Arthur sitting on a throne, holding a banner.\" width=\"250\" height=\"439\" \/>There are a few different varieties of King Arthur\u2019s story, one of the most prominent folklore stories from England. Most versions tell either of how Arthur became king when the Lady of the Lake gave him a sword called Excalibur, or of how he was the only one capable of pulling the sword from a stone. Either way, he was the chosen one, he possessed a certain something, and, by divine right, he became the king of Britain.<\/p>\n<p>There\u2019d be very few leaders among us today if we relied on a pulling-sword-from-stone selection process. Or, more likely, we\u2019d watch the process unfold and then say, \u201cHey, nice trick, but why should I listen to you?\u201d Concepts in leadership have changed since the sixth century.<\/p>\n<p>Surely, anyone who knew the legend of King Arthur understood that it helped illustrate the concept that those who led were born and not made. Early concepts of monarchy included the element that king was a divine choice and was bound to no earthly rules. The right to rule was derived directly from the will of God. Those that were not kings were instead heroes, possessors of God-given skills that helped them achieve victory in battle. Some of these heroes were mythological, like Odysseus, descendant of the gods and hero of the Trojan War, and others, like Alexander the Great and Hannibal Barca, earned their distinction in battles won against nearly insurmountable odds, immortalized in stories retold over generations.<\/p>\n<p>Plato, Plutarch, Lao-Tzu and even Machiavelli had an impact on how these rulers and heroes were defined in their instruction and shared opinions of what it meant to be a leader. Of course, they didn\u2019t use the word \u201cleader.\u201d The word \u201cleader\u201d as we use it today didn\u2019t come into the English language until the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Still, thanks to them, the \u201cleader as hero\u201d concept had been a clear definition for hundreds of years. In 1840, Scottish writer Thomas Carlyle stated that \u201cthe history of the world is but the biography of great men.\u201d The Great Man Theory took hold\u2014the idea that history can be explained by the impact of great men and the decisions they made. These great men were identified by their charisma, intelligence, and wisdom. Carlyle suggested that these great men shaped history through these personal attributes and, yes, divine inspiration, too.\u00a0(And since he lived in Scotland in the 1840s, there was no mention of women.)<\/p>\n<p>In Carlyle\u2019s book <em>On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in Society<\/em> (Carlyle, 1840), the author dove into the lives of several men he deemed \u201cheroes,\u201d like Muhammed, Richard Wagner, Shakespeare, Martin Luther, and Napoleon. He believed that history \u201cturned\u201d on the decisions of these men, and encouraged others to study these heroes as a way of discovering one\u2019s own true nature.<\/p>\n<p>Studies were conducted on subjects who were already leaders, often members of aristocracy that had inherited their positions. Very few people with lower status had the opportunity to lead, and this contributed to the idea that these leadership qualities were something one was born with.<\/p>\n<p>This Great Man approach was pretty fashionable in the 19th century, particularly with history professors who deferred to biographies of great men to teach their subject, rather than social histories. After all, it seems as if, when we faced some of our most difficult moments in history, a man emerged to lead us successfully through it. The existence of Abraham Lincoln, Theodore Roosevelt, and others like them only seemed to prove the theory.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Practice Question<\/h3>\n<p>https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/13984<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The Great Man Theory was a predecessor of the Early Trait Theory stage of leadership research. In the United States, we were well into the experience of our industrial revolution, and it was clear that leaders weren\u2019t just heroes and rulers. At the turn of the twentieth century, we were starting to understand the nuances of management and what it meant to be more strategic in leading. Could personality traits predict success in leadership?<\/p>\n<h2>Early Trait Approach<\/h2>\n<p>From the turn of the century until the 1940s, most leadership studies focused on the personality traits of individuals that made them leaders and not followers. Thomas Carlyle set the stage for the great man theory, and other researchers followed suit, trying to determine what kind of traits made a great leader great.<\/p>\n<p>Francis Galton, an English scientist and researcher, wrote a book <em>Hereditary Genius<\/em> in 1869, which was the first social scientific attempt to study genius and greatness (Galton, 1869). To determine if human ability was hereditary, he chose \u201ceminent\u201d men (men who exhibited extraordinary leadership qualities) and counted the relatives to see how many additional \u201ceminent\u201d men were in their background. Galton hypothesized that there would be a higher percentage of \u201ceminent\u201d men in their lineage than in the general population. His testing (for which he invented methods of historiometry) showed that numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when going from first degree to second degree relatives, and from second to third. He took this as evidence of the inheritance of abilities.<\/p>\n<p>As you might guess, even Galton recognized the limitations of these studies. He went on to study twins and adopted children, testing the \u201cnature vs. nurture\u201d term that he\u2019d coined, but never strayed too far from the idea that qualities were inherited instead of taught.<\/p>\n<p>In the early 1900s, American psychologist (and, like Galton, a eugenicist) Lewis Terman studied gifted children, and he conducted a variety of studies on the children and their parents to reinforce the idea of inheritance of abilities. And in the July, 1928 issue of <em>The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology<\/em>, researcher W.H. Cowley wrote,<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>The approach to the study of leadership usually has been and perhaps always must be through the study of traits. Leadership obviously is not a simple trait but rather a complex of main traits fashioned together as a unity. An adequate appraisal of leadership would reduce this complex to its individual units, and any study of leadership to be of value should produce a list of traits which go together to make the leader. (Cowley 1928)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>In 1948, after years of experiments and studies, researcher Ralph Stogdill determined that leadership exists between persons in a social situation, and that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations (Stogdill, 1948). This marked the end of researchers\u2019 tenacious ideas that individual differences characterized leadership, or that they\u2019d be able to predict leadership effectiveness. In the next sections, we\u2019ll talk about the behavioral and contingency approaches these new theories sparked. But we have to acknowledge here that this wasn\u2019t the end of studying traits in leadership. The trait approach wasn\u2019t done\u2014it just took a break.<\/p>\n<h3>Looking at Trait Theory Today<\/h3>\n<p>So, if studying leadership traits isn\u2019t useful, why are we talking about it? Well, surprisingly, interest in the topic continues, supported by media and general public opinion. Think about how media describes business leaders like Mary Barra and Bill Gates. They\u2019re innovative. They make tough decisions. They\u2019re philanthropic. The media is constantly throwing their personality traits out there for us to digest.<\/p>\n<p>Twelve percent of all the research published on the topic of leadership between 1990 and 2004 contains the keywords \u201cpersonality\u201d and \u201cleadership.\u201d Interest persists, and new information has been uncovered. Researcher Steven J. Zaccaro pointed out that, even in Stogdill\u2019s argument against traits, his studies contained conclusions suggesting that individual differences can still predict leader effectiveness.<\/p>\n<p>Remember that Cowley wrote that traits collectively lent themselves to leadership effectiveness. Taking a page from this book, Zaccaro and colleagues developed the trait-leadership model that attempted to address traits and their influence on a leader\u2019s effectiveness. The premise of the Trait-Leadership Model (Zaccaro, Kemp, Bader, 2004) is that (a) leadership emerges from the combined influence of multiple traits (integrated, rather than individual, traits) and (b) leader traits differ in their proximal influence on leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Zaccaro\u2019s model looks like this:<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-748 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4052\/2019\/04\/19184444\/ZaccaroModel.jpg\" alt=\"Diagram of Zaccaro's model. It starts with a Venn diagram of three distal attributes: personality, cognitive abilities, and motive values. There is an arrow to a Venn diagram of three proximal attributes: social appraisal skills, problem-solving skills, and expertise\/tacit knowledge. There is an arrow to the leadership criteria. The leadership criteria is the leader process, which goes into leader emergence, leader effectiveness, and leader advancement and promotion. The leader's operating environment affects the leadership criteria and proximal attributes.\" width=\"1122\" height=\"373\" \/><\/p>\n<p>This model comes with a list of leader traits, which Zaccaro reminds us are always not exhaustive. But traits based on his 2004 model include extraversion, agreeableness, openness, neuroticism, creativity, and others.<\/p>\n<p>Two other models have emerged in recent trait leadership studies. The Leader Trait Emergency Effectiveness Model, created by researcher Timothy Judge and colleagues, combines behavioral genetics and evolutionary psychology theories of how traits are developed and puts them into a model that attempts to explain leader emergence and effectiveness. A second model, the Integrated Model of Leader Traits, Behaviors, and Effectiveness, created by D. S. Derue and colleagues, combines traits and behaviors in predicting leader effectiveness and tested the mediation effect of leader behaviors on the relationship between leader traits and effectiveness.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the increased focus of researchers on trait theory, it remains among the more criticized theories of leadership. Some argue it\u2019s too simplistic. Others criticize that it studies leadership effectiveness as it\u2019s perceived by followers, rather than actual leadership effectiveness. But we want to leave you with two thoughts on the trait approach before we move on:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Traits can predict leadership. Years ago the evidence suggested otherwise, but the presence of proper framework for classifying and organizing traits now help us understand this better.<\/li>\n<li>Traits do a better job of predicting the emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership than they do distinguishing between effective and ineffective leadership.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Stogdill\u2019s comments encouraged researchers to look in other directions back in the late 1940s. If it\u2019s not the personality traits that predict effective leadership, perhaps it\u2019s the behavior of those leaders we should be studying. Let\u2019s take a look at the behavioral approach to leadership next.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Practice Question<\/h3>\n<p>https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/13985<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Behavioral Approach<\/h2>\n<p>If the answer isn\u2019t in the traits a leader exhibits, perhaps it lies in what a leader does. Behavioral theories of leadership suggest that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders. The implications for this idea are pretty big. Think about it. The trait approach can help you pick out a leader, or predict that an individual might step up to leadership. The behavioral approach suggests that leaders can be trained.<\/p>\n<p>Let\u2019s head back to the 1940s, around the time that Stogdill sent leadership studies off in a different direction, and look at the emergence of a few different instances of behavioral leadership research.<\/p>\n<h3>The Ohio State University Studies<\/h3>\n<p>Back in the late 1940s, research began at The Ohio State University to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior.<sup>1<\/sup> The team began with a list of over a thousand different dimensions and eventually narrowed the list to two leadership behaviors as they were described by employees. Those behaviors were task-focused and people focused.<\/p>\n<p>Those leaders that are concerned with the task are engaging in behaviors called initiation of structure. This doesn\u2019t mean that they don\u2019t care about people\u2014it means that they approach leadership from the task point of view. They organize and define the task so that followers can achieve the goal. For instance, a CEO might want to acquire a new company for a conglomerate. In the initiation of structure framework, the CEO will bring in his or her senior staff and start to direct them as to how and when he or she believes the work should be done.<\/p>\n<p>Alternatively, consideration is a leadership behavior aimed at creating mutual trust and respect with their followers. An example of consideration might be a leader who, in a time of change and turmoil in an organization, walks the floor of the assembly plant to see how workers are faring, or meets with his team to determine if they need extra support.<\/p>\n<p>Extensive research showed that leaders who rated high in both initiation of structure and consideration (a \u201chigh-high\u201d) were more likely to achieve high employee performance and satisfaction more frequently than those that scored high in only one of the two categories, or low in both categories. However, \u201chigh-high\u201d scoring did not always result in positive consequences. Those leaders that scored high in initiation of structure often experienced higher levels of grievances, absenteeism and turnover. Others found that high consideration scores for a leader resulted in lower performance evaluation scores from that leader\u2019s own manager.<\/p>\n<p>The Ohio State team suggested that \u201chigh-high\u201d generally resulted in positive outcomes but there were enough exceptions to indicate that situational factors also needed to be considered.<\/p>\n<h3>The University of Michigan Studies<\/h3>\n<p>Studies at the University of Michigan were conducted around the same time the Ohio State research was going on, and they had similar research objectives.<sup>2<\/sup> The University of Michigan team wanted to locate behavioral characteristics of leaders that appeared to be related to measures of performance effectiveness.<\/p>\n<p>The University of Michigan team also came up with two dimensions of leadership behavior. They labeled them employee-oriented and production oriented.<\/p>\n<p>Employee-oriented leaders emphasized interpersonal relations. They took a personal interest in the needs of employees and embraced individual differences among members. The production-oriented leaders tended to emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job. Their main concern was accomplishing objectives and the group members were just a means to reach that goal.<\/p>\n<p>The University of Michigan team concluded that employee-oriented leaders were associated with higher group productivity and higher job satisfaction, and production-oriented leaders tended to score low in both those areas.<\/p>\n<h3>Blake and Mouton\u2019s Managerial Grid<\/h3>\n<p>In 1964, researchers Robert Blake and Jane Moutin introduced their managerial grid as a graphic portrayal of a two-dimensional view of leadership.<sup>3<\/sup><\/p>\n<p>Like the Ohio State and University of Michigan studies, Blake and Mouton concentrated on concern for production and concern for people. They scored each of those areas on a scale of 1 (low) to 9 (high) to create 81 different positions in which the leader\u2019s style might fall. The result was five different types of behavioral styles.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-708\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4052\/2019\/04\/17194934\/ManagerialGrid.jpg\" alt=\"Blake and Mouton\u2019s Managerial Grid. The x-axis has concern for production, rated from low (one) to high (nine). The y-axis has concern for people, rated from low (one) to high (nine). There are five types of management on the grid. Indifferent management has low concern for production and low concern for people. Accommodating management has low concern for production and high concern for people. Dictatorial management has high concern for production and low concern for people. Sound management has high concern for production and high concern for people.\" width=\"650\" height=\"494\" \/><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>In the <strong>accommodating management style<\/strong>, leaders yield and comply. They pay attention to the comfort of the employees in hopes that they\u2019ll be productive. This style often results in happy employees but is not necessarily productive.<\/li>\n<li>In the <strong>indifferent management style<\/strong>, leaders evade and elude. They don\u2019t give much consideration to people or production, and try to fly under the radar a bit without getting into trouble.<\/li>\n<li>In the <strong>sound management style<\/strong>, leaders contribute and commit. They pay high attention to both people and production and encourage teamwork and commitment. It\u2019s very Theory Y!<\/li>\n<li>In the <strong>dictatorial management style<\/strong>, leaders control and dominate. They pay attention to production but not to people, and use rules and punishment to achieve goals. It\u2019s very Theory X!<\/li>\n<li>In the <strong>status quo management style<\/strong>, leaders balance and compromise. They are middle-of-the-road, and as a result, people needs and production needs aren\u2019t necessarily met.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Managers performed best when they scored in the \u201csound\u201d area. But the grid offered better framework for conceptualizing leadership style rather than presenting any new information in clarifying leadership behaviors, because there\u2019s very little substantive evidence to support the conclusion that a sound style is most effective in all situations.<\/p>\n<h3>The Scandinavian Studies<\/h3>\n<p>We\u2019re going to fast forward a few years to the 1990s, when Scandinavian researchers Ekvall and Arvonen began to reassess the idea that there were only two dimensions that captured the essence of leadership behavior.<sup>4<\/sup> n a changing world, they decided, leaders would exhibit development-oriented behavior. By exhibiting development-oriented behavior, these leaders would value experimentation, seek out new ideas and generate and implement change.<\/p>\n<p>In their review of the Ohio State studies, Ekvall and Arvonen found that the researchers had identified behaviors such as \u201cpushes new ways of doing things\u201d and \u201cencourages employees to do new things,\u201d but those items didn\u2019t explain much about leadership in 1940s, when those behaviors didn\u2019t have as great an impact. Their studies indicate that just concentrating on two different dimensions of behavior may not be adequate to capture leadership in the twenty-first century.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Practice Question<\/h3>\n<p>https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/13986<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Behavioral theories had modest success in identifying consistent relationships between leadership behavior and group performance. But none of these consider the situation as a factor. Would Ralph Nader have been as successful a consumer activist if he\u2019d been in Nicaragua and not the United States? Would Franklin Delano Roosevelt have been as successful leading the nation through the Revolutionary or the Civil Wars? None of these behavioral theories could clarify these situational differences. So, as we continued to grow in our theories of leadership, we started to look at contingency theories\u2014theories that considered the leader <em>and<\/em> the situation.<\/p>\n<h2>Contingency Approach<\/h2>\n<p>We know that traits and behaviors both have an impact on a leader\u2019s success, but what about the situation? This is the contingency approach. Circumstances might lead to peers and followers shunning a particular leader and then seeing him or her in a different way later on. Since the 1960s, the guiding light for research has been the assumption that what makes a leader great depends on the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The failure of researchers to arrive at any consistent results around leadership in the mid-twentieth center led to the study of situational influence. As they started to realize that a certain style and set of skills were appropriate for one situation and failed in another, they sought to determine which conditions matched which styles and skills. This led to several theories on isolating key situational variables, and we\u2019ll look at a few of those now.<\/p>\n<h3>Fiedler Model<\/h3>\n<p>Fred Fiedler developed the first comprehensive contingency model for leadership and proposed that effective group performance depended on a solid match between the leader\u2019s style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader.<sup>5<\/sup><\/p>\n<p>Fiedler started his study by determining whether a leader was more task oriented or relationship oriented in his or her behavioral traits. He determined to measure the leader\u2019s propensity to one trait or another by developing the least preferred coworker questionnaire (LPC). The least preferred coworker asked leaders to react to sixteen sets of contrasting adjectives that would describe their least preferred coworker. LPCs respondents that described their least preferred coworker in relatively positive terms, it stood to reason that the leader employed a relationship based approach. Those that described their least favorite coworker unfavorably were deemed to be more task oriented.<\/p>\n<p>It\u2019s worth noting that about sixteen percent of those taking the evaluation scored right in the middle and fall outside the predictions of this theory. So the rest of our discussion concentrates on that 84% of respondents that took one side or the other.<\/p>\n<p>At this point, Fiedler sought to define situations by which to compare these results. He did, in fact, identify three contingency dimensions that he was convinced defined the key situation factors that determine leadership effectiveness. Those situations were<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Leader-member relations:<\/strong> the degree to which members have confidence and trust in their leader (good or poor).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Task structure:<\/strong> the degree to which job assignments are proceduralized (high or low).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Position power:<\/strong> the degree of influence a leader has over power variables, such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions and salary increases (strong or weak).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Fiedler then started comparing task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders and their performances, based on the twenty-four possible combinations of the situations above, and this was the result:<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_753\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-753\" style=\"width: 1400px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-753 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4052\/2019\/04\/19194019\/FiedlerModel.jpg\" alt=\"The Fiedler Model shows the task-oriented performance, relationship-oriented performance, leader-member relations, task structure, and leader position power of eight categories of leaders. Category 1 has good task oriented performance, poor relationship performance, good leader-member relations, high task structure, and strong leader position power. Category 2 has good task oriented performance, poor relationship performance, good leader-member relations, high task structure, and weak leader position power. Category 3 has good task oriented performance, poor relationship performance, good leader-member relations, low task structure, and strong leader position power. Category 4 has poor task oriented performance, good relationship performance, good leader-member relations, low task structure, and weak leader position power. Category 5 has poor task oriented performance, good relationship performance, poor leader-member relations, high task structure, and strong leader position power. Category 6 has average task oriented performance, average relationship performance, poor leader-member relations, high task structure, and weak leader position power. Category 7 has good task oriented performance, poor relationship performance, poor leader-member relations, low task structure, and strong leader position power. Category 8 has good task oriented performance, poor relationship performance, poor leader-member relations, low task structure, and weak leader position power.\" width=\"1400\" height=\"576\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-753\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. Fiedler Model<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Fiedler concluded that task-oriented leaders tended to perform better when situations were very favorable or very unfavorable to them. Relationship oriented leaders perform better when situations are moderately favorable. Fiedler then modified his conclusions to state that task-oriented leaders performed better in situations of high or low control, while relationship-oriented leaders performed better in situations of moderate control.<\/p>\n<p>While there are problems with the LPC evaluation and studies show that respondents\u2019 scores are not stable, there is considerable evidence to support Fiedler\u2019s conclusions. Still, it\u2019s often difficult in practice to determine the quality of leader-member relations, the structure of task and how much position power the leader possesses.<\/p>\n<h3>Cognitive Resource Theory<\/h3>\n<p>More recently, Fiedler and an associate, Joe Garcia, reconceptualized Fiedler\u2019s original theory, this time focusing on the role of stress as a form of situational unfavorableness and how a leader\u2019s intelligence and experience influence his or her reaction to it.<sup>6 <\/sup><\/p>\n<p>Essentially, Fiedler and Garcia propose that it\u2019s difficult for leaders to think logically or analytically when they\u2019re under stress, and how their intelligence and experience impacts their effectiveness in low- and high-stress situations. In other words, bright individuals perform worse in stressful situations, and experienced people perform worse in low-stress situations. This theory is garnering solid research support.<\/p>\n<h3>Hersey and Blanchard\u2019s Situational Theory<\/h3>\n<p>The term \u201csituational leadership\u201d is most commonly derived from and connected with Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard\u2019s <strong>Situational Leadership Theory<\/strong>. This approach to leadership suggests the need to match two key elements appropriately: the leader\u2019s leadership style and the followers\u2019 maturity or preparedness levels.<\/p>\n<p>The theory identifies four main leadership approaches:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Telling:<\/strong> Directive and authoritative approach. The leader makes decisions and tells employees what to do.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Selling:<\/strong> The leader is still the decision-maker, but he communicates and works to persuade the employees rather than simply directing them.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Participating:<\/strong> The leader works with the team members to make decisions together. He supports and encourages them and is more democratic.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Delegating:<\/strong> The leader assigns decision-making responsibility to team members but oversees their work.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In addition to these four approaches to leadership, there are also four levels of follower maturity:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Level M1:<\/strong> Followers have low competence and low commitment.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Level M2:<\/strong> Followers have low competence, but high commitment.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Level M3:<\/strong> Followers have high competence, but low commitment and confidence.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Level M4:<\/strong> Followers have high competence and high commitment and confidence.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1706\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1972\/2017\/07\/25043844\/mod9_01.png\" alt=\"The four maturity levels are M1: low competence, low commitment; M2: low competence, high commitment; M3: high competence, low commitment\/confidence; and M4: high competence, high commitment\/confidence\" width=\"600\" height=\"355\" \/><\/p>\n<p>In Hersey and Blanchard\u2019s approach, the key to successful leadership is matching the proper leadership style to the corresponding maturity level of the employees. As a general rule, each of the four leadership styles is appropriate for the corresponding employee maturity level:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Telling style works best for leading employees at the M1 level (low competence, low commitment).<\/li>\n<li>Selling style works best for leading employees at the M2 level (low competence, high commitment).<\/li>\n<li>Participating style works best for leading employees at the M3 level (high competence, low commitment\/confidence).<\/li>\n<li>Delegating style works best for leading employees at the M4 level (high competence, high commitment\/confidence).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1720\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1720\" style=\"width: 550px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1720\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1972\/2017\/07\/25173154\/mod9_02_edited.png\" alt=\"M1 corresponds to telling style, M2 corresponds to selling style, M3 corresponds to participating style, and M4 corresponds to delegating style\" width=\"550\" height=\"375\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1720\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Maturity levels and leadership styles<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Identifying the employee maturity level becomes a very important part of the process, and the leader must have the willingness and ability to use any of the four leadership styles as needed.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Practice Question<\/h3>\n<p>https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/13987<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Leader-Member Exchange Theory<\/h3>\n<p>The leader-member exchange theory considers leaders relationships with people, and proposed that, because of time constraints, leaders establish relationships with a small group of their followers.<sup>7\u00a0 <\/sup>These individuals make up an \u201cin-group\u201d and are more likely to receive attention from the leader. Other followers fall into the \u201cout-group.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>How the leader chooses the \u201cin-group\u201d is somewhat unclear, but it\u2019s assumed that the leader chooses the individuals based on their similarities to his or her own characteristics, or because of their higher competence levels.<\/p>\n<p>Research testing the leader-member exchange theory has been generally supportive and provides evidence that leaders do differentiate among followers, that these disparities aren\u2019t random, and that the individuals in the \u201cin-group\u201d will perform better, have lower turnover, etc.<\/p>\n<h3>Path-Goal Theory<\/h3>\n<p>In the Path-Goal theory, it\u2019s the leader\u2019s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and\/or support to ensure their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization.<sup>8\u00a0 <\/sup>Developed by Robert House, he determined that there were four types of leaders that played into this theory:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>The supportive leader:<\/strong> is friendly and shows concerns for the followers.<\/li>\n<li><strong>The participative leader:<\/strong> checks with followers for suggestions before making a decision.<\/li>\n<li><strong>The directive leader:<\/strong> lets followers know what work is to be done, gives guidance on how to accomplish tasks.<\/li>\n<li><strong>The achievement-oriented leader:<\/strong> sets challenging goals, expects followers to perform at high levels.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The factors are environmental (task structure, formal authority system, work group) and subordinate (locus of control, experience, perceived ability). The environmental factors are beyond followers\u2019 control, and the subordinate factors are, obviously within their control. Environmental factors dictate which of the leadership behaviors above will be most effective, and the subordinate factors dictate how those leadership behaviors are interpreted.<\/p>\n<p>In other words, if a directive leader is paired with followers who already have a high ability and experience, the leader\u2019s skills are likely to be perceived as redundant. The followers don\u2019t need someone to tell them what to do. They\u2019d be more successful with an achievement-oriented leader.<\/p>\n<p>Research supports this theory. It\u2019s logical that a leader will be successful if he or she is \u201cfilling in the blanks\u201d where environmental and subordinate factors are concerned, and giving the team what they don\u2019t already have.<\/p>\n<h3>Leader-Participation Model<\/h3>\n<p>Victor Vroom, the researcher who developed the expectancy framework by which we compared motivational approaches, also has things to say about leadership.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Vroom, Victor H.; Yetton, Phillip W. (1973). Leadership and Decision-Making. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh\" id=\"return-footnote-144-1\" href=\"#footnote-144-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> He paired with Phillip Yetton to create a leader-participation model, and then with Arthur Jago to create a revised one. The revised model, the more widely accepted of the two, provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations.<\/p>\n<p>In fact, there are 12 contingency variables, 8 problem types, and 5 leadership styles to be considered in the process, and that\u2019s part of what makes the model difficult for managers to use. Beyond the complexity of the model, this model doesn\u2019t take stress, intelligence and experience into consideration as important variables.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Practice Question<\/h3>\n<p>https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/13988<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>All of these contingency models, which have been discussed and contemplated for more than forty years, seem to suggest, above all things, that there is no one right way to lead. \u00a0But don\u2019t worry, that doesn\u2019t mean we\u2019ve wasted our time!<\/p>\n<div class=\"footnotes\">\n<ol>\n<li id=\"footnote-690-1\">Stogdill, R and A. E. Coons, Leader Behavior: <em>Its Description and Measuremen<\/em>t, 1951 <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-1\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n<li id=\"footnote-690-2\">Kahn, R and D. Katz. \u201cLeadership Practices in Relation to Productivity and Morale,\u201d <em>Group Dynamics: Research and Theory,<\/em> 1960 <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-2\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n<li id=\"footnote-690-3\">Blake, R. R. and J. S. Mouton. <em>The Managerial Grid<\/em>. 1964 <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-3\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n<li id=\"footnote-690-4\">Ekvall, G and J. Arvonen, \u201cChange-Centered Leadership: An Extension of the Two-Dimensional Model,\u201d <em>Scandinavian Journal of Management<\/em>, 1991. M. Lindell and G. Rosenqvist, \u201cIs there a Third Management Style?\u201d <em>Finnish Journal of Business Economics 3<\/em>, 1992. M. Lindell and G. Rosenqvist, \u201cManagement Behavior Dimensions and Development Orientation,\u201d <em>Leadership Quarterly<\/em>, 1992. <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-4\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n<li id=\"footnote-690-5\">Fiedler, F. E. (1967) <em>A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness<\/em>, New York: McGraw-Hill. <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-5\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n<li id=\"footnote-690-6\">Fiedler, F. E. and Garcia, J. E. (1987) <em>New Approaches to Leadership, Cognitive Resources and Organizational Performance<\/em>, New York: John Wiley and Sons. <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-6\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n<li id=\"footnote-690-7\">Dienesch, R.M. and Liden, R.C. (1986) <em>Leader-Member Exchange Model of Leadership: A Critique and Further Development.<\/em> Academy of Management Review, 11, 618-634. <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-7\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n<li id=\"footnote-690-8\">House, Robert J.; Mitchell, T.R. (1974). &#8220;Path-goal theory of leadership&#8221;. <em>Journal of Contemporary Business. 3:<\/em> l\u201397. <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-8\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n<li id=\"footnote-690-9\">Vroom, Victor H.; Yetton, Phillip W. (1973). Leadership and Decision-Making. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh <a class=\"return-footnote\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/the-history-of-leadership-theories\/#return-footnote-690-9\">\u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<hr \/>\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div>\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\n<li>The History of Leadership Theories. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Freedom Learning Group. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<li>Image: Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<li>Image: Fiedler Model. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div>\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\n<li>Hersey and Blanchard Situational Theory. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Aaron Spencer and Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-principlesofmanagement\/chapter\/situational-theories-of-leadership\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-principlesofmanagement\/chapter\/situational-theories-of-leadership\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Specific attribution<\/div>\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\n<li>Untitled. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Miguel A. Padrinan. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Pixabay. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/career-paper-origami-leader-marina-1738216\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/career-paper-origami-leader-marina-1738216\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Pixabay License<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div>\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\n<li>Arthur Tapestry. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Unknown. Located at: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Arth_tapestry2.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Arth_tapestry2.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-144-1\">Vroom, Victor H.; Yetton, Phillip W. (1973). Leadership and Decision-Making. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh <a href=\"#return-footnote-144-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":11,"menu_order":97,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":"cc-by"},"chapter-type":[49],"contributor":[],"license":[53],"class_list":["post-144","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-numberless","license-cc-by"],"part":141,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/mgmt805\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/144","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/mgmt805\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/mgmt805\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/mgmt805\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/11"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/mgmt805\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/144\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":145,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/mgmt805\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/144\/revisions\/145"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/mgmt805\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/141"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/mgmt805\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/144\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/mgmt805\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=144"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/mgmt805\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=144"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/mgmt805\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=144"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/mgmt805\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=144"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}