{"id":77,"date":"2021-12-30T15:58:28","date_gmt":"2021-12-30T15:58:28","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/chapter\/spring-2022-genetic-material-build\/"},"modified":"2023-05-06T12:18:25","modified_gmt":"2023-05-06T12:18:25","slug":"spring-2022-genetic-material-build","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/chapter\/spring-2022-genetic-material-build\/","title":{"raw":"Genetic Material","rendered":"Genetic Material"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\"><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 Genetics Big Ideas and Big Questions<\/strong><\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Big Ideas<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Traits are determined by genetic and environmental factors.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>There are patterns in the way genetic information is stored, expressed, and passed on.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>Big Questions<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>What are the patterns in these processes?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What are the outcomes of these processes?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How can understanding these patterns help us determine what factors are genetic and which are not?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Genetics<\/strong><\/h1>\r\nAll living things have [pb_glossary id=\"376\"]<strong>genetic material<\/strong>[\/pb_glossary] that is structured in a similar pattern across species that helps organisms to perform necessary functions related particularly to passing traits from one generation to the next (figure 21). Humans can utilize information about genetic material to identify organisms and ailments. Genetic material is held in six main structures that work together to complete multiple functions.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2021\/12\/image8-1.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"571\" height=\"468\" \/>\r\n\r\nFigure 21: Genetic Material Structures\r\n<table class=\" alignleft\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"ab-R\">\r\n<td class=\"ab-C\"><strong>Structures<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"ab-C\"><strong>Functions<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"ab-R\">\r\n<td class=\"ab-C\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>DNA<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Gene<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Alleles<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Chromosomes<\/li>\r\n \t<li>RNA<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Protein<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"ab-C\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Determine and display Phenotypes<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Pass Genetic Information through Reproduction<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Interaction\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/learn.genetics.utah.edu\/content\/labs\/extraction\/\">Click here<\/a> to interact with genetic material. While interacting with DNA ask yourself these questions:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>How does the structure of the DNA relate to its function?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What makes DNA an important part of living organisms?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1><strong>Genetic Structures<\/strong><\/h1>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\"><strong>Teacher Time Out: Genetic Structures\u00a0<\/strong><\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\n<strong>How does this connect to the NGSS Progression<\/strong>\r\n\r\nDCI: <a href=\"https:\/\/ngss.nsta.org\/DisciplinaryCoreIdeas.aspx?id=14\">LS1 A: Structure and Function<\/a>: Science concepts start macro in grade band K-2 and 3-5 as students compare and contrast external structures across species and then what can be internal structures related to their functions across species. Students use this concept base to help them make connections as they dive into micro structures and their functions in grade band 6-8.\r\n<table class=\" aligncenter\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"ad-R\">\r\n<td class=\"ad-C\"><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"ad-C\"><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 K-2<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"ad-C\"><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a03-5<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"ad-C\"><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 6-8<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"ad-R\">\r\n<td class=\"ad-C\"><strong>LS1.A Structure and function<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"ad-C\">All organisms have external parts that they use to perform daily functions.<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"ad-C\">Organisms have both internal and external macroscopic structures that allow for growth, survival, behavior, and reproduction.<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"ad-C\">All living things are made up of cells. In organisms, cells work together to form tissues and organs that are specialized for particular body functions.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<strong>Implementation into the Classroom<\/strong>\r\n\r\nDNA paper models - students engage with developing DNA models from memory as they use basic shapes. Split the students into two groups, plant DNA and animal DNA. Encourage students to work with partners to construct the DNA molecule. Then have groups compare with each other. Provide students expert books for them to compare their designs to.\r\n\r\nChickens and Humans - show students images of a chicken and a human. Ask students what they notice about the structures that are on both organisms. Keep track on the board of what students say in two columns, one for structure and function. Have students compare the functions across species to help them see the relationships. For example, chicken feet look much different than human feet (structure), but their functions are similar (walking\/running).\r\n\r\nCell Types- provide students with an image of a plant cell and an animal cell. Encourage students to compare and contrast; ask students what they notice that is similar and different.\u00a0\u00a0 This is an excellent time to reinforce structure and function as parts of the cell are displayed, along with the unique design of each structure as it serves a function.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"377\"]<strong>DNA<\/strong> [\/pb_glossary]is one of the basic building blocks of all eukaryotic living things. It provides the genetic material that codes for the development, characteristics, and function of an organism. DNA is structured through the hydrogen bonding of four bases molecules (<strong>adenine (A)<\/strong>, [pb_glossary id=\"379\"]<strong>cytosine<\/strong>[\/pb_glossary] <strong>(C)<\/strong>, <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"378\"]adenine [\/pb_glossary](G)<\/strong>, and <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"380\"]thymine [\/pb_glossary](T)<\/strong>) and a <strong>sugar-phosphate<\/strong> backbone (figure 22 and 23). The bases bond in a set pattern of pairs where adenine will bond with thymine and guanine bonds with [pb_glossary id=\"379\"]<strong>cytosine<\/strong> [\/pb_glossary]creating a double strand. As the bonded bases and backbone interact electrical charges caused by the atomic structure cause the DNA to make a spiral structure known as a double helix<strong>.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image9-1.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"160\" height=\"213\" \/>\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image10.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"415\" height=\"218\" \/>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div><\/div>\r\n<div><\/div>\r\n<div><\/div>\r\n<div><\/div>\r\n<div><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nFigure 22: DNA Structure\r\n<div><\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>DNA<\/strong>\r\n\r\nAccumulate more information about the structure of <a href=\"https:\/\/learn.genetics.utah.edu\/content\/basics\/builddna\/\">DNA<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"genetic-material\">\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"ae-R\">\r\n<td class=\"ae-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Structure<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"ae-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Function<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"ae-R\">\r\n<td class=\"ae-C\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Adenine<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Thymine<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Cytosine<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Guanine<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Hydrogen bond<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Sugar-phosphate backbone<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"ae-C\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Encodes for behaviors, characteristics, and cellular processes.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image11.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"1500\" height=\"1750\" \/>\r\n\r\nFigure 23: DNA Structure\r\n\r\n(Ball, 2020)\r\n<h2><strong>Gene<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">A string of base pairs within DNA make up a gene. [pb_glossary id=\"381\"]<strong>Genes<\/strong> [\/pb_glossary]can be anywhere from a few base pair to thousands of base pairs long (figure 24). A strand of DNA can contain a variety of different genes that encode for specific characteristics or functions for the organism.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image12.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"451\" height=\"346\" \/><\/p>\r\nFigure 24: Gene Located on a DNA Strand\r\n\r\n(Novartis, 2021)\r\n<table width=\"387\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"af-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Structure<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Function<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"af-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af-C\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Sections of DNA<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af-C\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Encodes for <em>specific<\/em> traits<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"genetic-material\">\r\n<h2><strong>Chromosomes\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">DNA is a large molecule that, if stretched out, reaches lengths of up to 5 feet long in humans! For the DNA to fit in the cell\u2019s nucleus it is stored around a protein structure known as a histone. As the DNA is wound up it starts to form a rod shape known as a chromatid. When paired up, the two chromatids create a chromosome. [pb_glossary id=\"382\"]<strong>Chromosomes<\/strong> [\/pb_glossary]contain the entire or part of the entire DNA of an organism (figure 25). This means that chromosomes are the \u201clarge\u201d structure that holds all genetic material for an <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"346\"]eukaryotic[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> organism.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image13.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"440\" height=\"474\" \/><\/p>\r\nFigure 25: Break Down of a Chromosome\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"af0-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af0-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Structure<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af0-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Function<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"af0-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af0-C\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">DNA<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Histones<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Alleles<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Chromatid<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af0-C\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Hold all genetic material in one place<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Alleles<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In some cases, genes can come in one, two, or more forms known as [pb_glossary id=\"383\"]<strong>alleles<\/strong>[\/pb_glossary]. These alleles can be found at the same location ([pb_glossary id=\"384\"]<strong>locus<\/strong>[\/pb_glossary]) on chromosomes and encode for the same overall characteristic or function, but are structured by slight differences in the DNA due to mutations that have occurred over time (figure 26). These differences are known as alleles and are often characterized as dominant and recessive. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"385\"]Dominant alleles[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> provide a masking of all other genes that correspond to that same allele. The alleles that are masked are known as <strong>recessive alleles<\/strong>. Alleles often work in pairs, one on each corresponding chromosome. This pairing of alleles is known as a <strong>genotype<\/strong> and most commonly expressed by a letter (capital (i.e. T) for dominant, lower case (i.e. t) for recessive) when representing the genotype.\u00a0 When there are two of the same alleles together the genotype is referred to as <strong>homozygous<\/strong> and defined further by identifying it as dominant or recessive (i.e. AA = homozygous dominant, aa = homozygous recessive). If the two alleles are different the genotype is <strong>heterozygous<\/strong> (i.e. Aa). It is important to note that alleles (both dominant, both recessive, or dominant and recessive) are expressed at the same time. Genotypes (and by default alleles) can come together in varying patterns that will be discussed in the Genetic Functions section.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">\u00a0 <img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image14.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"232.500052493438px\" height=\"349.365039370079px\" \/>\r\n<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-68 alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/600px-Punnett_Square_Green_Dominant.svg-300x300-1.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nFigure 26: Alleles and Punnet Squares\r\n\r\n(Brookes, 2008)\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<table class=\" alignleft\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"af1-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af1-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Structure<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af1-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Function<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"af1-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af1-C\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Specific Genes<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">On a Chromosome<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af1-C\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Encode for <em>varying specific<\/em> traits<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><\/h2>\r\n<h2><strong>Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">[pb_glossary id=\"388\"]<strong>RNA<\/strong> [\/pb_glossary]is a piece of genetic material that has similar structural patterns to DNA as it has four bases and a sugar-phosphate backbone. However, RNA is single stranded, has <strong>ribose<\/strong>, and contains one different base, [pb_glossary id=\"387\"]<strong>uracil<\/strong> [\/pb_glossary](U) (figure 27). Within some [pb_glossary id=\"386\"]<strong>prokaryotes<\/strong> [\/pb_glossary]RNA provides all genetic material needed for cellular processes; while in other prokaryotes and [pb_glossary id=\"346\"]<strong>eukaryotes<\/strong> [\/pb_glossary]RNA functions as an intermediate molecule between DNA and gene expression (traits- characteristics that are observed) through the process of <strong>transcription<\/strong>. During transcription DNA is transcribed into RNA which then leaves the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm of the cell. It is here that RNA performs its function of developing proteins through the process of <strong>translation.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Transcription vs Translation<\/strong>\r\n\r\nTo learn more about the processes of transcription and translation watch these videos:\r\n\r\n<a class=\"rId56\" href=\"https:\/\/www.yout-ube.com\/watch?v=5MfSYnItYvg\">Transcription<\/a>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube-nocookie.com\/embed\/8dsTvBaUMvw?autoplay=1&amp;iv_load_policy=3&amp;loop=1&amp;modestbranding=1&amp;playlist=8dsTvBaUMvw\">Translation<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image16.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"1371\" height=\"1097\" \/>Figure 27: DNA and RNA Structure<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">(Sponk, 2010)<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table width=\"306\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"af2-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af2-C\" style=\"width: 182.467px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Structure<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af2-C\" style=\"width: 130.933px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Function<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"af2-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af2-C\" style=\"width: 182.467px\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Adenine<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Uracil<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Cytosine<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Guanine<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Sugar-phosphate backbone<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af2-C\" style=\"width: 130.933px\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Transcription<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Translation<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Protein<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The process of <strong>translation<\/strong> creates long chains of amino acids that correspond to the DNA that was first transcribed. The chains of <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"389\"]amino acids[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are then folded (figure 28) into the necessary structure and sent to different parts of the cell or body to perform a function. These folded strands of amino acids are known as proteins. [pb_glossary id=\"390\"]<strong>Proteins<\/strong> [\/pb_glossary]provide a variety of traits within a cell that include structural, mechanical, biochemical, and signaling.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image17.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"1280\" height=\"720\" \/><\/p>\r\nFigure 28: Protein Folding\r\n\r\n(Shields, 2021)\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"af3-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af3-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Structure<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af3-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Function<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"af3-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af3-C\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Amino acids<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af3-C\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Express what the DNA encoded for through visual traits or characteristics.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Heredity<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nFor an overview of heredity, begin by watching this video.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/science\/ap-biology\/heredity\/mendelian-genetics-ap\/v\/introduction-to-heredity\">https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/science\/ap-biology\/heredity\/mendelian-genetics-ap\/v\/introduction-to-heredity<\/a>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Phenotype<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Hair color, eye shape, feather length, leaf shape, hormones. All of these are [pb_glossary id=\"391\"]<strong>phenotypes<\/strong>[\/pb_glossary]--the DNA outcome (<strong>trait<\/strong>) that we can observe with our sense or enhancement of our senses. Phenotypes are acted upon through the environment and provide ways for organisms to blend in, stick out, or to protect themselves. In many cases, phenotypes can also be an indicator of health or sexual viability. Phenotypes can also be in the form of hormones such as estrogen, testosterone, insulin, adrenaline, etc. The main thing to know is that phenotypes are the end result of DNA. Below are five typical patterns in which we observe phenotypes:<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Simple dominance <\/strong>\u2192 a mendelian genetic pattern where the dominant gene is expressed over the recessive and where the recessive gene is masked by the dominant gene OR is expressed when the genotype is homozygous recessive.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Incomplete dominance<\/strong>\u2192 With a heterozygous genotype, the dominant trait is not fully expressed but in the homozygous dominant genotype it is. For example, red (R) and white (r) alleles in a flower expressed as red with a homozygous dominant phenotype (RR),\u00a0 pink with a heterozygous phenotype (Rr) and white with a homozygous recessive phenotype (rr) (Figure 29).<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image18.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"585\" height=\"566\" \/>\r\n\r\nFigure 29: Incomplete Dominance Inheritance Pattern\r\n\r\n(Kilo, 2012)\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Codominance<\/strong>\u2192 both the recessive and dominant traits are expressed at the same time resulting in each characteristic showing up in the heterozygous genotype. For example, red (R) and white (r) resulting in a striped plant (figure 30).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image19.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"612\" height=\"599\" \/><\/p>\r\nFigure 30: Codominance Inheritance Pattern\r\n\r\n(Cruz, 2005)\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Polygenic<\/strong>\u2192 when there are multiple genes that make up a phenotype and are expressed at the same time. For example: hair color, eye color, and skin color (figure 31).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image20.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"528\" height=\"626\" \/><\/p>\r\nFigure 31: Polygenic Inheritance Pattern\r\n\r\n(OpenStax, 2016)\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Multiple Allele<\/strong>\u2192 multiple alleles (more than 2) exist for a particular gene and therefore make up a variety of phenotypes resulting from many possible genotypes. For example, coat color in the organism below has four different possible alleles (C, c<sup>ch<\/sup>, c<sup>h<\/sup>, c). (figure 32)<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image21.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"800\" height=\"574\" \/><\/p>\r\nFigure 32: Multiple Allele Inheritance Pattern\r\n\r\n(OpenStax, 2016)\r\n<div>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"af4-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af4-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Structure<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af4-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Function<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"af4-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af4-C\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Proteins<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Physical characteristics<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af4-C\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Provide ways for organisms to blend in, stick out, protect themselves, attract mates, or perform living functions (e.g. homeostasis).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Teacher Time Out: Variation of Traits\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>How does this connect to the NGSS Progression<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">DCI: <a class=\"rId64\" href=\"https:\/\/ngss.nsta.org\/DisciplinaryCoreIdeas.aspx?id=23\">LS3.B: Variation of Traits<\/a>: Grade band K-2 focuses on comparing parent to offspring utilizing external structures that can be seen. This phenomena is further investigated in grade band 3-5 and 6-8 as students begin to discover the underlying cause (genetics, inheritance, and environment) to the similar but different characteristics of parent to offspring.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"af6-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af6-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af6-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>K-2<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af6-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>3-5<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af6-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>6-8<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"af6-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af6-C\"><strong>LS3.B Variation of traits<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af6-C\">Young organisms are very much, but not exactly, like their parents and also resemble other organisms of the same kind.<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af6-C\">Different organisms vary in how they look and function because they have different inherited information; the environment also affects the traits that an organism develops.<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af6-C\">In sexual reproduction, each parent contributes half of the genes acquired by the offspring resulting in variation between parent and offspring. Genetic information can be altered because of mutations, which may result in beneficial, negative, or no change to proteins in or traits of an organism.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Implementation into the Classroom<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Lady Bug Similarities - Students can be shown images of parents and offspring of lady bugs. Engage students in discussion on what they notice about each picture. Keep track of these up on the board. Help students notice that the offspring look like their parents, but may have a different number, shape, or shade of spots. Help students recognize that even siblings look a little different.<\/p>\r\nFit Your Environment - Show students different habitats and different animals. Have students develop claims backed with evidence to determine which organism lives where and why they think that is the case. Ask probing questions to engage students in conversation about the benefits of how organisms look and their environment.\r\n\r\nFormative Assessment Probe -\r\n\r\nPaige Keeley is the author of many effective formative assessment probes.\u00a0 These can be found in books published by the National Science Teachers Association.\u00a0 Consider using these probes to determine your students held beliefs (often not entirely scientifically accurate) and then utilize that data in your curricular and instructional decisions.\r\n\r\nFollow this link to see a sample formative assessment probe:\r\n\r\nUncovering Students\u2019 Ideas About Inherited Traits\r\nBy Page Keeley\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/iowa-my.sharepoint.com\/:b:\/r\/personal\/lklogan_uiowa_edu\/Documents\/Fall%202021%20Black%20Dell%20Files\/Fall%20Black%20Dell%20Files\/Press%20Book%20Files\/Formative%20Assessment%20Probe%20%20-%20Inherited%20Traits.pdf?csf=1&amp;web=1&amp;e=a2Kkrx\">https:\/\/iowa-my.sharepoint.com\/:b:\/r\/personal\/lklogan_uiowa_edu\/Documents\/Fall%202021%20Black%20Dell%20Files\/Fall%20Black%20Dell%20Files\/Press%20Book%20Files\/Formative%20Assessment%20Probe%20%20-%20Inherited%20Traits.pdf?csf=1&amp;web=1&amp;e=a2Kkrx<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1><strong>Genetic Functions<\/strong><\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The overall function of genetic material is to create an organism that is able to have structures that can function to keep the organism alive and to pass on genetic information (DNA \u2192 RNA \u2192 Protein \u2192 Trait) to the next generation. This process is known as reproduction through <strong>meiosis<\/strong> and cell replication through [pb_glossary id=\"351\"]<strong>mitosis<\/strong>[\/pb_glossary].<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Reproduction<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">All living organisms are capable of <strong>reproduction<\/strong> either sexually or asexually. Asexual reproduction allows for an organism to reproduce without another member of its species. This type of reproduction tends to occur in species that have reduced mobility (e.g. tulips, potatoes, amoebas, bacteria, sea anemones, etc.). When asexual reproduction occurs an organism creates a clone of itself through a serious of steps known as [pb_glossary id=\"351\"]<strong>mitosis<\/strong> [\/pb_glossary](figure 33) which passes on all traits both advantageous and detrimental to the offspring. Mitosis is also used within a species as they heal and grow, creating cells to replace old ones.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image22.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"800\" height=\"591\" \/><\/p>\r\nFigure 33: Steps of Mitosis\r\n\r\n(Kultys, 2008)\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The other method of reproduction is sexual reproduction. This requires genetic material from two different members of the same species (e.g. humans, ginkgo trees, bears, lions, etc.). In order to facilitate sexual reproduction, some cells go through a series of steps known as <strong>meiosis <\/strong>(figure 34). Through this process the sex gametes (sperm and egg) are created and have only half of the typical number of chromosomes for the species. When mating, each individual contributes a gamete which provides half the chromosomes, or genetic material, for the offspring to have a complete set.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image23.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"800\" height=\"514\" \/><\/p>\r\nFigure 34: Steps of Meiosis\r\n\r\n(Kultys, 2008)\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Teacher Time Out: Growth, Development, and Inheritance<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>How does this connect to the NGSS<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">DCI:<a class=\"rId67\" href=\"https:\/\/ngss.nsta.org\/DisciplinaryCoreIdeas.aspx?id=15\"> LS1.B: Growth and Development of Organisms<\/a>: Students begin to develop an awareness of how behaviors relate to survival in grade band K-2, and how these behaviors are often found in parents and offspring. In grade band 3-5 students observe the phenomena of life cycles and the need for reproduction. These two grade bands allow for a base understanding for students in grade band 6-8 to put behaviors and reproduction together as they further their understanding of how genetics and environment play a role in development.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"af8-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af8-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af8-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>K-2<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af8-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>3-5<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af8-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>6-8<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"af8-R\">\r\n<td class=\"af8-C\"><strong>LS1.B Growth and development of organisms<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af8-C\">Parents and offspring often engage in behaviors that help the offspring survive<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af8-C\">Reproduction is essential to every kind of organism. Organisms have unique and diverse life cycles.<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"af8-C\">Animals engage in behaviors that increase the odds of reproduction. An organism\u2019s growth is affected by both genetic and environmental factors.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Implementation into the Classroom<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/docs.google.com\/document\/d\/1Pf_3hPqhKMga1c-igy2mGYs4Cc8VQjpYV0gBVV7EBbU\/edit?usp=sharing\">Nature vs. Nurture<\/a>\r\n\r\nAn initial engagement activity where students are shown the phenomena of genetics and politics. Students then organize a list of characteristics on a continuum of completely genetic to completely environmental.\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a class=\"rId69\" href=\"https:\/\/docs.google.com\/document\/d\/1WCNT8ZWYTKEo96sFQMyqHrldEMeQNbnGEyiZgzD-ECY\/edit?usp=sharing\">Baby making lab<\/a><\/p>\r\nAn investigation and engineering activity where students explore their own phenotypes and potential genotypes as they work with a partner to develop a baby.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1><strong>Genetic Material and the Environment<\/strong><\/h1>\r\nNature versus nurture. Which one is truly more important? Do your genes control who you are, or is it the environment? Are you predisposed to end up like your parents? Does one have more pull over the other? These are questions that are often asked and are still being asked by many scientists. However, it is thought that both genetics and the environment play a role in the way organisms look, act, and their ability to survive. DNA is the basic unit of life that encodes for the proteins that make up characteristics (traits) of an organism. Yet, it's the environment that interacts with those traits which can lead to the alteration of the gene pool of a population. Thus, the environment can impact genes. New research on genetics has shown that there may be genes that are influenced by the environment known as <strong>epigenetics<\/strong>. The concept of environmental interaction and genetics will be discussed in more detail in the Evolution section.\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Epigenetics<\/strong>\r\n\r\nInvestigate <a class=\"rId70\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/genomics\/disease\/epigenetics.htm\">epigenetics <\/a>as you read this article.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3><strong>Review Concepts \u2013 Genetic Material<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nConsider how structure and function is pertinent in genetics.\r\n\r\nExplain genetic material as one of the characteristics of living things.\r\n\r\nDescribe the role of DNA and how it differs from RNA.\r\n\r\nDiscuss alleles and how do they relate to genetics.\r\n\r\nDifferentiate between phenotypes and genotypes.\r\n\r\nExplain the difference between dominant and recessive traits.\r\n\r\nDescribe how cells reproduce and the role of genetics in this process.\r\n\r\nWhat arguments are inherent within the phrase \"nature vs. nuture?\"","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\"><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 Genetics Big Ideas and Big Questions<\/strong><\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p><strong>Big Ideas<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Traits are determined by genetic and environmental factors.<\/li>\n<li>There are patterns in the way genetic information is stored, expressed, and passed on.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Big Questions<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>What are the patterns in these processes?<\/li>\n<li>What are the outcomes of these processes?<\/li>\n<li>How can understanding these patterns help us determine what factors are genetic and which are not?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Genetics<\/strong><\/h1>\n<p>All living things have <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_376\"><strong>genetic material<\/strong><\/a> that is structured in a similar pattern across species that helps organisms to perform necessary functions related particularly to passing traits from one generation to the next (figure 21). Humans can utilize information about genetic material to identify organisms and ailments. Genetic material is held in six main structures that work together to complete multiple functions.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2021\/12\/image8-1.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"571\" height=\"468\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Figure 21: Genetic Material Structures<\/p>\n<table class=\"alignleft\">\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"ab-R\">\n<td class=\"ab-C\"><strong>Structures<\/strong><\/td>\n<td class=\"ab-C\"><strong>Functions<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"ab-R\">\n<td class=\"ab-C\">\n<ul>\n<li>DNA<\/li>\n<li>Gene<\/li>\n<li>Alleles<\/li>\n<li>Chromosomes<\/li>\n<li>RNA<\/li>\n<li>Protein<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"ab-C\">\n<ul>\n<li>Determine and display Phenotypes<\/li>\n<li>Pass Genetic Information through Reproduction<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Interaction\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/learn.genetics.utah.edu\/content\/labs\/extraction\/\">Click here<\/a> to interact with genetic material. While interacting with DNA ask yourself these questions:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>How does the structure of the DNA relate to its function?<\/li>\n<li>What makes DNA an important part of living organisms?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1><strong>Genetic Structures<\/strong><\/h1>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\"><strong>Teacher Time Out: Genetic Structures\u00a0<\/strong><\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p><strong>How does this connect to the NGSS Progression<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>DCI: <a href=\"https:\/\/ngss.nsta.org\/DisciplinaryCoreIdeas.aspx?id=14\">LS1 A: Structure and Function<\/a>: Science concepts start macro in grade band K-2 and 3-5 as students compare and contrast external structures across species and then what can be internal structures related to their functions across species. Students use this concept base to help them make connections as they dive into micro structures and their functions in grade band 6-8.<\/p>\n<table class=\"aligncenter\">\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"ad-R\">\n<td class=\"ad-C\"><\/td>\n<td class=\"ad-C\"><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 K-2<\/strong><\/td>\n<td class=\"ad-C\"><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a03-5<\/strong><\/td>\n<td class=\"ad-C\"><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 6-8<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"ad-R\">\n<td class=\"ad-C\"><strong>LS1.A Structure and function<\/strong><\/td>\n<td class=\"ad-C\">All organisms have external parts that they use to perform daily functions.<\/td>\n<td class=\"ad-C\">Organisms have both internal and external macroscopic structures that allow for growth, survival, behavior, and reproduction.<\/td>\n<td class=\"ad-C\">All living things are made up of cells. In organisms, cells work together to form tissues and organs that are specialized for particular body functions.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><strong>Implementation into the Classroom<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>DNA paper models &#8211; students engage with developing DNA models from memory as they use basic shapes. Split the students into two groups, plant DNA and animal DNA. Encourage students to work with partners to construct the DNA molecule. Then have groups compare with each other. Provide students expert books for them to compare their designs to.<\/p>\n<p>Chickens and Humans &#8211; show students images of a chicken and a human. Ask students what they notice about the structures that are on both organisms. Keep track on the board of what students say in two columns, one for structure and function. Have students compare the functions across species to help them see the relationships. For example, chicken feet look much different than human feet (structure), but their functions are similar (walking\/running).<\/p>\n<p>Cell Types- provide students with an image of a plant cell and an animal cell. Encourage students to compare and contrast; ask students what they notice that is similar and different.\u00a0\u00a0 This is an excellent time to reinforce structure and function as parts of the cell are displayed, along with the unique design of each structure as it serves a function.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_377\"><strong>DNA<\/strong> <\/a>is one of the basic building blocks of all eukaryotic living things. It provides the genetic material that codes for the development, characteristics, and function of an organism. DNA is structured through the hydrogen bonding of four bases molecules (<strong>adenine (A)<\/strong>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_379\"><strong>cytosine<\/strong><\/a> <strong>(C)<\/strong>, <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_378\">adenine <\/a>(G)<\/strong>, and <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_380\">thymine <\/a>(T)<\/strong>) and a <strong>sugar-phosphate<\/strong> backbone (figure 22 and 23). The bases bond in a set pattern of pairs where adenine will bond with thymine and guanine bonds with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_379\"><strong>cytosine<\/strong> <\/a>creating a double strand. As the bonded bases and backbone interact electrical charges caused by the atomic structure cause the DNA to make a spiral structure known as a double helix<strong>.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image9-1.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"160\" height=\"213\" \/><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image10.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"415\" height=\"218\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div><\/div>\n<div><\/div>\n<div><\/div>\n<div><\/div>\n<div><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Figure 22: DNA Structure<\/p>\n<div><\/div>\n<div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>DNA<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Accumulate more information about the structure of <a href=\"https:\/\/learn.genetics.utah.edu\/content\/basics\/builddna\/\">DNA<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"genetic-material\">\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"ae-R\">\n<td class=\"ae-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Structure<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"ae-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Function<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"ae-R\">\n<td class=\"ae-C\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Adenine<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Thymine<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Cytosine<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Guanine<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Hydrogen bond<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Sugar-phosphate backbone<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"ae-C\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Encodes for behaviors, characteristics, and cellular processes.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image11.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"1500\" height=\"1750\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Figure 23: DNA Structure<\/p>\n<p>(Ball, 2020)<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Gene<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">A string of base pairs within DNA make up a gene. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_381\"><strong>Genes<\/strong> <\/a>can be anywhere from a few base pair to thousands of base pairs long (figure 24). A strand of DNA can contain a variety of different genes that encode for specific characteristics or functions for the organism.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image12.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"451\" height=\"346\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Figure 24: Gene Located on a DNA Strand<\/p>\n<p>(Novartis, 2021)<\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 387px;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"af-R\">\n<td class=\"af-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Structure<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Function<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"af-R\">\n<td class=\"af-C\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Sections of DNA<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af-C\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Encodes for <em>specific<\/em> traits<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"genetic-material\">\n<h2><strong>Chromosomes\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">DNA is a large molecule that, if stretched out, reaches lengths of up to 5 feet long in humans! For the DNA to fit in the cell\u2019s nucleus it is stored around a protein structure known as a histone. As the DNA is wound up it starts to form a rod shape known as a chromatid. When paired up, the two chromatids create a chromosome. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_382\"><strong>Chromosomes<\/strong> <\/a>contain the entire or part of the entire DNA of an organism (figure 25). This means that chromosomes are the \u201clarge\u201d structure that holds all genetic material for an <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_346\">eukaryotic<\/a><\/strong> organism.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image13.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"440\" height=\"474\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Figure 25: Break Down of a Chromosome<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"af0-R\">\n<td class=\"af0-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Structure<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af0-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Function<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"af0-R\">\n<td class=\"af0-C\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">DNA<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Histones<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Alleles<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Chromatid<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af0-C\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Hold all genetic material in one place<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Alleles<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In some cases, genes can come in one, two, or more forms known as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_383\"><strong>alleles<\/strong><\/a>. These alleles can be found at the same location (<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_384\"><strong>locus<\/strong><\/a>) on chromosomes and encode for the same overall characteristic or function, but are structured by slight differences in the DNA due to mutations that have occurred over time (figure 26). These differences are known as alleles and are often characterized as dominant and recessive. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_385\">Dominant alleles<\/a><\/strong> provide a masking of all other genes that correspond to that same allele. The alleles that are masked are known as <strong>recessive alleles<\/strong>. Alleles often work in pairs, one on each corresponding chromosome. This pairing of alleles is known as a <strong>genotype<\/strong> and most commonly expressed by a letter (capital (i.e. T) for dominant, lower case (i.e. t) for recessive) when representing the genotype.\u00a0 When there are two of the same alleles together the genotype is referred to as <strong>homozygous<\/strong> and defined further by identifying it as dominant or recessive (i.e. AA = homozygous dominant, aa = homozygous recessive). If the two alleles are different the genotype is <strong>heterozygous<\/strong> (i.e. Aa). It is important to note that alleles (both dominant, both recessive, or dominant and recessive) are expressed at the same time. Genotypes (and by default alleles) can come together in varying patterns that will be discussed in the Genetic Functions section.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">\u00a0 <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image14.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"232.500052493438px\" height=\"349.365039370079px\" \/><br \/>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-68 alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/600px-Punnett_Square_Green_Dominant.svg-300x300-1.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/files\/2023\/03\/600px-Punnett_Square_Green_Dominant.svg-300x300-1.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/files\/2023\/03\/600px-Punnett_Square_Green_Dominant.svg-300x300-1-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/files\/2023\/03\/600px-Punnett_Square_Green_Dominant.svg-300x300-1-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/files\/2023\/03\/600px-Punnett_Square_Green_Dominant.svg-300x300-1-225x225.png 225w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Figure 26: Alleles and Punnet Squares<\/p>\n<p>(Brookes, 2008)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<table class=\"alignleft\">\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"af1-R\">\n<td class=\"af1-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Structure<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af1-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Function<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"af1-R\">\n<td class=\"af1-C\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Specific Genes<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">On a Chromosome<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af1-C\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Encode for <em>varying specific<\/em> traits<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><\/h2>\n<h2><strong>Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_388\"><strong>RNA<\/strong> <\/a>is a piece of genetic material that has similar structural patterns to DNA as it has four bases and a sugar-phosphate backbone. However, RNA is single stranded, has <strong>ribose<\/strong>, and contains one different base, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_387\"><strong>uracil<\/strong> <\/a>(U) (figure 27). Within some <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_386\"><strong>prokaryotes<\/strong> <\/a>RNA provides all genetic material needed for cellular processes; while in other prokaryotes and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_346\"><strong>eukaryotes<\/strong> <\/a>RNA functions as an intermediate molecule between DNA and gene expression (traits- characteristics that are observed) through the process of <strong>transcription<\/strong>. During transcription DNA is transcribed into RNA which then leaves the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm of the cell. It is here that RNA performs its function of developing proteins through the process of <strong>translation.<\/strong><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Transcription vs Translation<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>To learn more about the processes of transcription and translation watch these videos:<\/p>\n<p><a class=\"rId56\" href=\"https:\/\/www.yout-ube.com\/watch?v=5MfSYnItYvg\">Transcription<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube-nocookie.com\/embed\/8dsTvBaUMvw?autoplay=1&amp;iv_load_policy=3&amp;loop=1&amp;modestbranding=1&amp;playlist=8dsTvBaUMvw\">Translation<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image16.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"1371\" height=\"1097\" \/>Figure 27: DNA and RNA Structure<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">(Sponk, 2010)<\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 306px;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"af2-R\">\n<td class=\"af2-C\" style=\"width: 182.467px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Structure<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af2-C\" style=\"width: 130.933px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Function<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"af2-R\">\n<td class=\"af2-C\" style=\"width: 182.467px\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Adenine<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Uracil<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Cytosine<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Guanine<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Sugar-phosphate backbone<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af2-C\" style=\"width: 130.933px\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Transcription<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Translation<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Protein<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The process of <strong>translation<\/strong> creates long chains of amino acids that correspond to the DNA that was first transcribed. The chains of <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_389\">amino acids<\/a><\/strong> are then folded (figure 28) into the necessary structure and sent to different parts of the cell or body to perform a function. These folded strands of amino acids are known as proteins. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_390\"><strong>Proteins<\/strong> <\/a>provide a variety of traits within a cell that include structural, mechanical, biochemical, and signaling.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image17.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"1280\" height=\"720\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Figure 28: Protein Folding<\/p>\n<p>(Shields, 2021)<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"af3-R\">\n<td class=\"af3-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Structure<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af3-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Function<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"af3-R\">\n<td class=\"af3-C\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Amino acids<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af3-C\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Express what the DNA encoded for through visual traits or characteristics.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Heredity<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>For an overview of heredity, begin by watching this video.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/science\/ap-biology\/heredity\/mendelian-genetics-ap\/v\/introduction-to-heredity\">https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/science\/ap-biology\/heredity\/mendelian-genetics-ap\/v\/introduction-to-heredity<\/a><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Phenotype<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Hair color, eye shape, feather length, leaf shape, hormones. All of these are <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_391\"><strong>phenotypes<\/strong><\/a>&#8211;the DNA outcome (<strong>trait<\/strong>) that we can observe with our sense or enhancement of our senses. Phenotypes are acted upon through the environment and provide ways for organisms to blend in, stick out, or to protect themselves. In many cases, phenotypes can also be an indicator of health or sexual viability. Phenotypes can also be in the form of hormones such as estrogen, testosterone, insulin, adrenaline, etc. The main thing to know is that phenotypes are the end result of DNA. Below are five typical patterns in which we observe phenotypes:<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Simple dominance <\/strong>\u2192 a mendelian genetic pattern where the dominant gene is expressed over the recessive and where the recessive gene is masked by the dominant gene OR is expressed when the genotype is homozygous recessive.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Incomplete dominance<\/strong>\u2192 With a heterozygous genotype, the dominant trait is not fully expressed but in the homozygous dominant genotype it is. For example, red (R) and white (r) alleles in a flower expressed as red with a homozygous dominant phenotype (RR),\u00a0 pink with a heterozygous phenotype (Rr) and white with a homozygous recessive phenotype (rr) (Figure 29).<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image18.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"585\" height=\"566\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Figure 29: Incomplete Dominance Inheritance Pattern<\/p>\n<p>(Kilo, 2012)<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Codominance<\/strong>\u2192 both the recessive and dominant traits are expressed at the same time resulting in each characteristic showing up in the heterozygous genotype. For example, red (R) and white (r) resulting in a striped plant (figure 30).<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image19.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"612\" height=\"599\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Figure 30: Codominance Inheritance Pattern<\/p>\n<p>(Cruz, 2005)<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Polygenic<\/strong>\u2192 when there are multiple genes that make up a phenotype and are expressed at the same time. For example: hair color, eye color, and skin color (figure 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image20.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"528\" height=\"626\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Figure 31: Polygenic Inheritance Pattern<\/p>\n<p>(OpenStax, 2016)<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Multiple Allele<\/strong>\u2192 multiple alleles (more than 2) exist for a particular gene and therefore make up a variety of phenotypes resulting from many possible genotypes. For example, coat color in the organism below has four different possible alleles (C, c<sup>ch<\/sup>, c<sup>h<\/sup>, c). (figure 32)<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image21.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"800\" height=\"574\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Figure 32: Multiple Allele Inheritance Pattern<\/p>\n<p>(OpenStax, 2016)<\/p>\n<div>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"af4-R\">\n<td class=\"af4-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Structure<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af4-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Function<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"af4-R\">\n<td class=\"af4-C\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Proteins<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Physical characteristics<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af4-C\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Provide ways for organisms to blend in, stick out, protect themselves, attract mates, or perform living functions (e.g. homeostasis).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Teacher Time Out: Variation of Traits\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>How does this connect to the NGSS Progression<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">DCI: <a class=\"rId64\" href=\"https:\/\/ngss.nsta.org\/DisciplinaryCoreIdeas.aspx?id=23\">LS3.B: Variation of Traits<\/a>: Grade band K-2 focuses on comparing parent to offspring utilizing external structures that can be seen. This phenomena is further investigated in grade band 3-5 and 6-8 as students begin to discover the underlying cause (genetics, inheritance, and environment) to the similar but different characteristics of parent to offspring.<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"af6-R\">\n<td class=\"af6-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af6-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>K-2<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af6-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>3-5<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af6-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>6-8<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"af6-R\">\n<td class=\"af6-C\"><strong>LS3.B Variation of traits<\/strong><\/td>\n<td class=\"af6-C\">Young organisms are very much, but not exactly, like their parents and also resemble other organisms of the same kind.<\/td>\n<td class=\"af6-C\">Different organisms vary in how they look and function because they have different inherited information; the environment also affects the traits that an organism develops.<\/td>\n<td class=\"af6-C\">In sexual reproduction, each parent contributes half of the genes acquired by the offspring resulting in variation between parent and offspring. Genetic information can be altered because of mutations, which may result in beneficial, negative, or no change to proteins in or traits of an organism.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Implementation into the Classroom<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Lady Bug Similarities &#8211; Students can be shown images of parents and offspring of lady bugs. Engage students in discussion on what they notice about each picture. Keep track of these up on the board. Help students notice that the offspring look like their parents, but may have a different number, shape, or shade of spots. Help students recognize that even siblings look a little different.<\/p>\n<p>Fit Your Environment &#8211; Show students different habitats and different animals. Have students develop claims backed with evidence to determine which organism lives where and why they think that is the case. Ask probing questions to engage students in conversation about the benefits of how organisms look and their environment.<\/p>\n<p>Formative Assessment Probe &#8211;<\/p>\n<p>Paige Keeley is the author of many effective formative assessment probes.\u00a0 These can be found in books published by the National Science Teachers Association.\u00a0 Consider using these probes to determine your students held beliefs (often not entirely scientifically accurate) and then utilize that data in your curricular and instructional decisions.<\/p>\n<p>Follow this link to see a sample formative assessment probe:<\/p>\n<p>Uncovering Students\u2019 Ideas About Inherited Traits<br \/>\nBy Page Keeley<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/iowa-my.sharepoint.com\/:b:\/r\/personal\/lklogan_uiowa_edu\/Documents\/Fall%202021%20Black%20Dell%20Files\/Fall%20Black%20Dell%20Files\/Press%20Book%20Files\/Formative%20Assessment%20Probe%20%20-%20Inherited%20Traits.pdf?csf=1&amp;web=1&amp;e=a2Kkrx\">https:\/\/iowa-my.sharepoint.com\/:b:\/r\/personal\/lklogan_uiowa_edu\/Documents\/Fall%202021%20Black%20Dell%20Files\/Fall%20Black%20Dell%20Files\/Press%20Book%20Files\/Formative%20Assessment%20Probe%20%20-%20Inherited%20Traits.pdf?csf=1&amp;web=1&amp;e=a2Kkrx<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h1><strong>Genetic Functions<\/strong><\/h1>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The overall function of genetic material is to create an organism that is able to have structures that can function to keep the organism alive and to pass on genetic information (DNA \u2192 RNA \u2192 Protein \u2192 Trait) to the next generation. This process is known as reproduction through <strong>meiosis<\/strong> and cell replication through <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_351\"><strong>mitosis<\/strong><\/a>.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Reproduction<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">All living organisms are capable of <strong>reproduction<\/strong> either sexually or asexually. Asexual reproduction allows for an organism to reproduce without another member of its species. This type of reproduction tends to occur in species that have reduced mobility (e.g. tulips, potatoes, amoebas, bacteria, sea anemones, etc.). When asexual reproduction occurs an organism creates a clone of itself through a serious of steps known as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_77_351\"><strong>mitosis<\/strong> <\/a>(figure 33) which passes on all traits both advantageous and detrimental to the offspring. Mitosis is also used within a species as they heal and grow, creating cells to replace old ones.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image22.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"800\" height=\"591\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Figure 33: Steps of Mitosis<\/p>\n<p>(Kultys, 2008)<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The other method of reproduction is sexual reproduction. This requires genetic material from two different members of the same species (e.g. humans, ginkgo trees, bears, lions, etc.). In order to facilitate sexual reproduction, some cells go through a series of steps known as <strong>meiosis <\/strong>(figure 34). Through this process the sex gametes (sperm and egg) are created and have only half of the typical number of chromosomes for the species. When mating, each individual contributes a gamete which provides half the chromosomes, or genetic material, for the offspring to have a complete set.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/31\/files\/2023\/03\/image23.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"800\" height=\"514\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Figure 34: Steps of Meiosis<\/p>\n<p>(Kultys, 2008)<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Teacher Time Out: Growth, Development, and Inheritance<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>How does this connect to the NGSS<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">DCI:<a class=\"rId67\" href=\"https:\/\/ngss.nsta.org\/DisciplinaryCoreIdeas.aspx?id=15\"> LS1.B: Growth and Development of Organisms<\/a>: Students begin to develop an awareness of how behaviors relate to survival in grade band K-2, and how these behaviors are often found in parents and offspring. In grade band 3-5 students observe the phenomena of life cycles and the need for reproduction. These two grade bands allow for a base understanding for students in grade band 6-8 to put behaviors and reproduction together as they further their understanding of how genetics and environment play a role in development.<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"af8-R\">\n<td class=\"af8-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af8-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>K-2<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af8-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>3-5<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"af8-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>6-8<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"af8-R\">\n<td class=\"af8-C\"><strong>LS1.B Growth and development of organisms<\/strong><\/td>\n<td class=\"af8-C\">Parents and offspring often engage in behaviors that help the offspring survive<\/td>\n<td class=\"af8-C\">Reproduction is essential to every kind of organism. Organisms have unique and diverse life cycles.<\/td>\n<td class=\"af8-C\">Animals engage in behaviors that increase the odds of reproduction. An organism\u2019s growth is affected by both genetic and environmental factors.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Implementation into the Classroom<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/docs.google.com\/document\/d\/1Pf_3hPqhKMga1c-igy2mGYs4Cc8VQjpYV0gBVV7EBbU\/edit?usp=sharing\">Nature vs. Nurture<\/a><\/p>\n<p>An initial engagement activity where students are shown the phenomena of genetics and politics. Students then organize a list of characteristics on a continuum of completely genetic to completely environmental.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a class=\"rId69\" href=\"https:\/\/docs.google.com\/document\/d\/1WCNT8ZWYTKEo96sFQMyqHrldEMeQNbnGEyiZgzD-ECY\/edit?usp=sharing\">Baby making lab<\/a><\/p>\n<p>An investigation and engineering activity where students explore their own phenotypes and potential genotypes as they work with a partner to develop a baby.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h1><strong>Genetic Material and the Environment<\/strong><\/h1>\n<p>Nature versus nurture. Which one is truly more important? Do your genes control who you are, or is it the environment? Are you predisposed to end up like your parents? Does one have more pull over the other? These are questions that are often asked and are still being asked by many scientists. However, it is thought that both genetics and the environment play a role in the way organisms look, act, and their ability to survive. DNA is the basic unit of life that encodes for the proteins that make up characteristics (traits) of an organism. Yet, it&#8217;s the environment that interacts with those traits which can lead to the alteration of the gene pool of a population. Thus, the environment can impact genes. New research on genetics has shown that there may be genes that are influenced by the environment known as <strong>epigenetics<\/strong>. The concept of environmental interaction and genetics will be discussed in more detail in the Evolution section.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Epigenetics<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Investigate <a class=\"rId70\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/genomics\/disease\/epigenetics.htm\">epigenetics <\/a>as you read this article.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3><strong>Review Concepts \u2013 Genetic Material<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>Consider how structure and function is pertinent in genetics.<\/p>\n<p>Explain genetic material as one of the characteristics of living things.<\/p>\n<p>Describe the role of DNA and how it differs from RNA.<\/p>\n<p>Discuss alleles and how do they relate to genetics.<\/p>\n<p>Differentiate between phenotypes and genotypes.<\/p>\n<p>Explain the difference between dominant and recessive traits.<\/p>\n<p>Describe how cells reproduce and the role of genetics in this process.<\/p>\n<p>What arguments are inherent within the phrase &#8220;nature vs. nuture?&#8221;<\/p>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_77_376\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_376\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>units of heredity information that controls the traits of a particular organism; located on chromosomes<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_377\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_377\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>(deoxyribonucleic acid) the fundamental hereditary material of all living things. In eukaryotes, stored primarily in the cell nucleus<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_379\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_379\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>a single-ring nitrogeneous-base molecule in DNA and RNA; complementary base of guanine<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_378\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_378\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>a double-ring nitrogeneous-base molecule in DNA and RNA; complementary base of thymine or uracil<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_380\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_380\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>a single-ring nitrogeneous-base molecule in DNA but not in RNA; complementary base of adenine<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_381\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_381\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>the unit of hereditary information that controls the traits of an organism; located on the chromosomes<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_382\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_382\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>complex structures within the within the nucleus of a cell composed of various types of proteins and DNA that contains the cell\u2019s genetic information<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_346\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_346\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>organisms whose cells contain their genetic material inside a nucleus; contains  both membrane-enclosed nucleus and organelles e.g. protists, plants, animals, and fungi<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_383\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_383\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>an alternative form of a gene for a given trait<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_384\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_384\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>the spot on chromosome where the allele is located<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_385\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_385\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>an allele that expresses itself and masks the effects of other alleles for the trait<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_388\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_388\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>(ribonucleic acid) a nucleic acid containing ribose.  Various classes of RNA are involved in the transcription and translation of genetic information.  RNA serves as the genetic storage material in some viruses<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_387\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_387\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>a single ring nitrogenous-base molecule in RNA but not in DNA; complementary to adenine<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_386\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_386\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>organisms whose genetic material is not contained in a nucleus; lacks both membrane-enclosed nucleus organelles e.g. bacteria<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_389\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_389\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>a compound which contains an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a side group; these are the building blocks of proteins<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_390\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_390\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>a compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulphur that is essential to living things<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_391\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_391\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>a form of a given trait that is expressed, or observable<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_77_351\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_77_351\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>nuclear division in eukaryotes leading to the formation of two daughter nuclei each with a chromosome complement identical to that of the original nucleus<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":11,"menu_order":8,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-77","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":49,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/77","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/11"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/77\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":419,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/77\/revisions\/419"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/49"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/77\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=77"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=77"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=77"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/methods\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=77"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}