Cultivating Your Leadership Capabilities

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Defining Leadership: Leadership styles

smm1123 — Fri, 17 May 2019 15:09:16 +0000

What it means to be a successful leader in today’s complicated and ever-transforming world is different from decades ago. What has now been considered successful leadership has changed from past years' authoritative and heroic styles. In today’s environment, where the workforce is constructed of teams of diverse, multi-generational, and often global employees, leaders must understand how to influence, inspire, and coach their co-workers to push their potential while meeting the individual and the organization’s needs. Leaders must be authentic, compassionate, moral, and modest servants to their followers, who understand the benefits of mentoring their employees to become better selves.

Boy Scouts of America: Training leaders for tomorrow. By Bacastow, C. (2018) Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY: Attribution with attribution required.

Leadership

Leadership is used to establish direction and influence others to follow. Leadership is how an individual mobilizes people and resources to achieve a goal. It requires a learned set of skills and attributes that can be nurtured. Leaders inspire, challenge, and encourage others. They may persuade and influence, and they show resilience and persistence. All aspects of society have leaders. The concept of leader may call to mind a CEO, a prime minister, a general, a sports team captain, or a school principal; examples of leadership exist across various organizations. Leaders motivate others to aspire to achieve and help them to do so. They focus on the big picture with a vision of what could be and help others to see that future and believe it is possible. This way, leaders seek to bring substantive changes to their teams, organizations, and society. Leadership is a relationship between followers and those who inspire them and provide direction for their efforts and commitments. Without followers, there can be no leaders; good leaders often demonstrate followership. Leadership affects how people think and feel about their work and how it contributes to a larger whole. Influential leaders often mean the difference between increasing a team's ability to perform or diminishing its performance, keeping efforts on track or encountering a disaster, and even between success or failure. In this book, we will discuss the above mentioned concepts and other ideas.

Leadership. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/defining-leadership-68/leadership-337-1044/index.html Except where noted, content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required.

Leadership and Management

Leadership is one of the most essential concepts in management, and many researchers have proposed theories and frameworks for understanding it. Some have distinguished among types of leadership, such as charismatic, heroic, and transformational leadership. Other experts discuss the distinctions between managers and leaders, while others address the personality and cognitive factors most likely to predict a successful leader. The many dimensions of leadership indicate how complex a notion is and how difficult effective leadership can be. There will be more discussion on leadership and management later in this book.

What is leadership? By Aaron Spenser. Lumens. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-principlesofmanagement/chapter/what-is-leadership/ Except where noted, content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY: Attribution with attribution required.

What Does Successful Leadership Look Like?

Leadership success today has numerous gauges by which to measure against. While some may weigh heavily on profit margins, others may look to employee satisfaction and retention as better leadership proficiency metrics. For success today and in coming years, leaders must influence their organizations to be effective with an increasingly diverse workforce operating in a complex global environment. Leading these boundaryless organizations requires leaders who recognize that people are not just a means to an organizational outcome but are also an end in and of themselves (Latham, 2014). As Gordon and Yuki (as cited in Latham, 2014) attest, “While there is no shortage of concepts comprising the many leadership theories, there is little consensus on what constitutes effective leadership” (p.12).

Boy Scouts of America: Training leaders for tomorrow. By Bacastow, C. (2018) Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY: Attribution with attribution required.

Leadership Function and Styles

Leadership function refers to the main focus or goal of the leader. An instrumental leader is goal-oriented and primarily concerned with accomplishing set tasks. We can imagine an army general or a Fortune 500 CEO would be instrumental leaders. Expressive leaders are more concerned with promoting emotional strength and health and supporting people. Social and religious leaders—rabbis, priests, imams, directors of youth homes, and social service programs—are often perceived as expressive leaders. The longstanding stereotype is that men are more instrumental leaders and women are more expressive leaders. And although gender roles have changed, even today, many women and men who exhibit the opposite-gender manner can be seen as deviants and can encounter resistance. Former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton’s experiences show how society reacts to a high-profile woman who is an instrumental leader. Despite the stereotype, Boatwright and Forrest (2000) have found that both men and women prefer leaders who combine expressive and instrumental leadership.

Leadership styles.

Democratic leaders encourage group participation in all decision-making. They work hard to build consensus before choosing a course of action and moving forward. This type of leader is particularly common, for example, in a club where the members vote on which activities or projects to pursue. Democratic leaders can be well-liked, but there is often a danger that the danger will proceed slowly since consensus building is time-consuming. A further risk is that group members might pick sides and entrench themselves into opposing factions rather than reaching a solution.

Leadership Styles. OpenStax CNX. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/alamo-sociology/chapter/reading-leadership-styles/ License CC:BY: Attribution

Authoritarian

As the name suggests, authoritarian leaders issue orders and assign tasks. These leaders are clear instrumental leaders with a strong focus on meeting goals. Often, entrepreneurs fall into this mold, like Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg. Not surprisingly, the authoritarian leader risks alienating the workers. There are times, however, when this leadership style can be required. Each leadership style can be effective and successful in different circumstances.

Directive Leadership

This type of leadership is defined as the type of leadership where leaders provide a direct and unambiguous approach to their followers. Since the subordinates will be provided with the necessary direction, guidance, and support, they will be required to achieve the expected results in exchange.

Laissez-Faire leadership

This type of leadership does not exercise strict control over their subordinates directly. Most people on the team are supposed to be highly experienced individuals. Thus, most of them do not need strict control and supervision. Due to the disadvantages of the Laissez-Faire leadership style, team members may lack communication and feedback for improvement. In the end, they may fail to meet the deadline for project completion. Laissez-faire leaders provide a suitable environment for subordinates and empower them to make decisions themselves. As the subordinates have full decision-making authority, laissez-faire leaders do not usually give feedback on the accomplished tasks.

Transactional Leadership

Transactional leadership is the style where the leader rewards or punishes the employee for the task accomplished. Several studies on leadership found that when transactional leadership is employed in the organization, the mutual trust between the leader and the task-holder develops. Employees will be punished if there is a mistake in the work of subordinates. Thus, employees may perform not at their best, and they may be afraid of making a mistake. As a result, they are less likely to work on new projects and learn new skills and knowledge. In contrast, employees who perform at their best are rewarded well, motivating them to work harder. Transactional leadership, a system based on rewards, is used to motivate followers. Though, the motivation given through such an approach does not last long.

Transformational Leadership

Transformational leaders are reported to work based on a balanced approach. This can be explained by the fact that they help their subordinates to solve some of the challenging issues. At the same time, they teach their subordinates how to tackle problems in a similar context. Therefore, researchers believe that the role of transformational leaders can be observed in bringing their employees' motivational level to the self-actualization stage. Moreover, the most common qualities used to describe transformational leaders' personality include charisma and intellectual stimulation. Another name for transformational leadership is a facilitator. In other words, team members and leaders motivate each other to achieve high performance and motivation levels. Thus, it is considered one of the most commonly adopted types of leadership, where team members encourage each other by different means to achieve organizational goals and long-term plans. Unlike other types of leadership, this type of leadership has a high level of communication between the team members. Therefore, the case of transformational leadership was related to increased motivation levels, higher job satisfaction, commitment, productivity, and performance. Thus, transformational leaders’ control, vision, and enthusiasm for inspiring their followers lead to higher results in management. In this context, the three essential components of transformational leaders need to be reviewed.

Individual consideration (Mumford et al. 2000).
intellectual stimulation, which means encouraging the followers to see the issue from the other side and broaden their outlook on specific matters.
Inspirational motivation, where the leader stresses the particular importance of an employee in the team, which helps the organization to reach the goal and successful cooperation and accomplishment of the project (Chen et al. 2005).

Transformational leadership this style serves to improve the collaboration among organization members (Keegan et al., 2004; Bass and Avolio J., 1990; Pearce, 1981). Transformational leaders let their followers feel like part of the organization. Such leaders have a strong inspirational vision to encourage the organization's employees to care more about the company's goals than their own goals and interests. Such leaders are believed to be enthusiastic and energetic.

References

Bass, B. and Avolio, J. (1990). The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press
Chen, H., Beck, S., and Amos, L. (2005). Leadership Styles and nursing faculty job satisfaction in Taiwan. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 37, 374–380. Crossref
Keegan, A. E., and Den Hartog, D. N. (2004). Transformational leadership in a project-based environment: a comparative study of the leadership styles of project managers and line managers. International journal of project management, 22(8), 609-617. Crossref
Mumford, M., Zaccaro, S. J., Johnson, J. F., Diana, M., Gilbert, J. A. and Threlfall, K. (2000). Patterns of leader characteristics: Implications for performance and development. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 115–133. Crossref

Leadership Styles and Job Performance: A Literature Review. By Mohammed Al-Malki, Wang Juan. https://researchleap.com/leadership-styles-job-performance-literature-review/Licensed under Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)

Formal vs. Informal Leadership

Generally speaking, individuals assigned titles and authority positions are expected to provide leadership. Because that leadership role is officially recognized, this is known as formal leadership. However, plenty of individuals have formal leadership positions but do not provide strong leadership. This is often problematic and can leave the organization lacking direction and purpose. Some individuals do not have official leadership positions but exhibit leadership qualities and practices. They help create the company vision with innovative ideas and inspire and motivate their coworkers. When leadership is exhibited without an official position, it is known as informal leadership. This is a valuable trait for an employee to have

Aaron Spenser and Lumens. What is leadership? https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-principlesofmanagement/chapter/what-is-leadership/Except where noted, content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY: Attribution with attribution required.

When asked, “What do leaders do?” many professionals will respond that the leader’s singular job is to “get results.” Daniel Goleman (2000), in his article “Leadership That Gets Results,” expresses that virtually no quantitative research has demonstrated which precise leadership behaviors yield positive results. He continues that thousands of “leadership experts” have made careers of evaluating and coaching executives, all in pursuit of producing business people who can transform and turn bold objectives into reality - strategic, financial, or organizational. Several common threads emerge from the core literature which can be drawn upon to define successful leadership. While Latham’s (2014) work, similar to the research of Palmer, Walls, Burgess, and Stough (2001), admits to the benefits of transformational leadership, as does the research of Bottomley, Burgess, and Fox (2014); Latham (2014) concedes transformational leadership does not entirely meet the needs of today’s complex environment and workforce. Instead, Latham (2014) supports the concept of servant leadership, much as Rohm and Osula’s (2013) research concludes, stating that servant leadership appeals to the needs of a multi-generation labor force. The research findings of multiple works agree that there is no singular answer to a leadership approach but instead settle on the realization that multiple approaches, used appropriately, are more apt to render positive outcomes.

Boy Scouts of America: Training leaders for tomorrow. Bacastow, C. (2018) Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under : CC BY: Attribution with attribution required.

Bottomley, K., Burgess, S., & Fox III, M. (2014). Are the Behaviors of Transformational Leaders Impacting Organizations? A Study of Transformational Leadership. International Management Review, 10(1), 5–9.
Goleman, D. (2000). Leadership that Gets Results. Harvard business review, 78(2), 4-17.
Latham, J. R. (2014). Leadership for Quality and Innovation: Challenges, Theories, and a Framework for Future Research. Quality Management Journal, 21(1), 11-15.
Rohm Jr., F. W., & Osula, B. (2013). Scouting and Servant Leadership in Cross-Cultural Perspective: An Exploratory Study. Journal of Virtues & Leadership, 3(1), 26.

Leadership vs. Management

smm1123 — Fri, 17 May 2019 15:09:17 +0000

The terms "management" and "leadership" have been used interchangeably, yet they have similarities and differences. Both terms suggest directing the activities of others. In one definition, managers focus on the organization and performance of tasks and aim at efficiency, while leaders inspire others by inspiring a shared vision and effectiveness. Managerial work tends to be more transactional, emphasizing processes, coordination, and motivation, while leadership has an emotional appeal, is based on relationships with followers, and seeks to transform. One traditional way of understanding the differences between managers and leaders is that people manage things, but leaders lead other people. More concretely, managers administrate and maintain the systems and processes by which work gets done. Their work includes planning, organizing, staffing, leading, directing, and controlling the activities of individuals, teams, or whole organizations to accomplish a goal. Managers are results-oriented problem-solvers responsible for day-to-day functions focusing on an organization's immediate, shorter-term needs. In contrast, leaders take the long-term view and have responsibility for where a team or organization is heading and what it achieves. They challenge the status quo, make change happen, and work to develop the capabilities of people to contribute to achieving their shared goals. Additionally, leaders act as figureheads for their teams and organizations by representing their vision and values to outsiders. This definition of leadership may create a negative bias against managers as less noble or less critical: "Leader" suggests a heroic figure, rallying people to unite under a common cause. In contrast, "manager" calls to mind less charismatic individuals focused solely on getting things done.

Management versus leadership. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/defining-leadership-68/management-versus-leadership-338-3993/index.html Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required.

To help distinguish between leadership and management, consider the following sets of terms associated with each category:

Leadership	Management
Influencing Change Direction Vision Innovating Developing Long-term Originating Creating Motivating Inspiring People Big Ideas	Planning Organizing Controlling Stability Administering Maintaining Implementing Instructing Resources Budgeting Scheduling Details

What is Leadership? Aaron Spencer and Lumen Learning.https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-principlesofmanagement/chapter/what-is-leadership/ License: CC BY: Attribution

Gender and the Role it Plays in Management and Leadership

Gender continues to play a role in workforce issues. Revolutions such as “Me Too” have offered women an avenue to speak up and out against injustices they face in the workplace. Aside from the looming and disturbing sexual assault parameters that “Me Too” is based on, this movement has granted women a more significant, unified voice to request equality in the workplace. The increased opportunities include but are not limited to, the deterrence of wage differentials and receiving consideration for high-level positions based on worth and not gender. Unfortunately, Gender roles continue to play a significant role in workplace positions, specifically when utilizing the differences between management and leadership. As outlined in the Cultivating Your Leadership Capabilities (2019, Ch. 2), the differences are that managers manage “things” while leaders lead people. These differences in management and leadership should apply to leaders regardless of gender. Still, according to historical context, the distinction is much more prevalent between male and female leaders and managers. What’s it all about? Throughout examining the role gender plays in the workplace, I have discovered a distinction in the characteristics of male versus female leaders. A type of “brand” is put on each gender; men are more rigid and agentic, while women are more communal and amiable (Carli, 2007, p. 66 para. 1). Using these characteristics, we can compare the differences in management versus leadership. Suppose these characteristics of gender roles in the workplace and differences in management and leadership align. In that case, we can then determine a causal connection as to why many women still fail to obtain equality in workplace statuses. To understand fully the differences in observed characteristics between the genders, we can turn to Linda Carli and Alice Eagly’s research. In their article, the authors cite the differences between the genders by stating, “…the clash is between two sets of associations: communal and agentic” (Carli, 2007, p. 66, para. 1). Communal can be defined as one being based in a community, or more colloquially, a people person; someone everyone can turn to for answers. On the other hand, agentic can be defined as someone assertive, competitive, and attentive to the task at hand. Carli explains, “Women are associated with communal qualities…being especially affectionate, helpful, friendly, kind, sympathetic, and interpersonally soft-spoken, gentle, and sensitive. Men are associated with agentic qualities, which convey assertion and control” (Carli, 2007, p. 66, para. 1). According to Spencer (2019), we can begin to base these distinctions on the characteristics of management or leadership by stating, “Managers administrate and maintain the systems and processes by which work gets done…leaders take the long-term view and have responsibility for where a team or organization is heading and what it achieves” (paras. 2 and 3). Using the definitions in the paragraph above, we can draw parallels to the descriptions of management and leadership and see the causal relationship each description brings to illuminate the differences between men and women in the workplace. Is History the Enemy of Progression? The distinctions between management and leadership can be experienced in most modern workplaces. We all have experiences where we can point to a particular supervisor and, using Spencer’s definition, determine whether or not they were more of a manager or a leader. What is interesting about this is we usually do not make those distinctions firmly on the gender of the supervisor. But, by utilizing intensive research, we can draw those parallels between management and leadership based on gender. Referring back to Linda Carli and Alice Eagly’s research, we can begin to understand the characteristics that lend themselves to a firm distinction between men and women in the workplace. Although we have discussed agentic characteristics as more rigid, unsympathetic, and “cold”, Carli and Eagly wrote, “the agentic traits are associated in most people’s minds with effective leadership – perhaps because a long history of male domination of leadership roles has made it difficult to separate the leader associations from the male associations” (Carli, 2007, p. 66, para. 1). According to Carli and Eagly, history of workplace norms can be blamed for the innate feeling most employees have towards male leaders; that they are effective because they are men. This gives women less “wiggle room” when vying for top-tier positions. Carli and Eagly wrote, “Women find themselves in a double bind. If they are highly communal, they may be criticized for not being agentic enough. But if they are highly agentic, they may be criticized for lack of communion” (Carli, 2007, p. 66, para. 1). Carole Elliot and Valerie Stead wrote, "literature that does address gender and leadership specifically there has been a tendency to label leadership as either masculine or feminine in style” (Elliott & Stead, 2008, p. 163). Masculine and feminine leadership styles can be traced back to Carli’s interpretation (communal or agentic) but are also connected to Spencer’s text about the differences in characteristics between management and leadership. The history of men in leadership roles can be based on the patriarchal norms of society. Eric Arthrell wrote, in a report published by Deliotte Insights, societally, men were expected to provide for families. This societal pressure to provide has allowed me to absorb both the communal and agentic tendencies for themselves without leaving room for women to utilize either effectively in the workplace." Four themes characterize men in the workplace; “It’s on me, I’m terrified, I can’t turn to anyone, and show me it’s okay” (Arthrell, 2019, p. 10). These four themes help explain why men are thrust into the idea that they must achieve leadership or status in the workplace to provide for their families. The theme of “I’m terrified” is particularly interesting because it is grounded in the historical idea laid out previously. The report explains that “men are afraid of failure, which leads them to overcompensate with hypercompetitive behavior to mask their insecurity and earn professional success” (Arthrell, 2019, p. 10). This innate insecurity stems from the “protector” and “provider” societal norms shaped early on in Western civilization. Knowing this historical and societal context, the differences between management and leadership in gender are prevalent in workplace equities. To reiterate the points made in Spencer’s (2019) article, “managers are results-oriented problem-solvers with responsibility for day-to-day functions which focus on the immediate, shorter-term needs of an organization” (para. 2). Tying this to Carli’s (2007) work, we can deduce that managers most align with the agentic characteristics (i.e., directing, administering, result-driven individuals). Leaders, as described by Spencer (2019), “take the long-term view and have responsibility for where a team or organization is heading and what it achieves. They challenge the status quo, make change happen, and work to develop the capabilities of people to contribute to achieving their shared goals” (para. 3). In alignment with Carli’s text, leaders can be described as more communal; focused on the health and strength of the team to ensure successful results. According to Carrie Kerpen (2018), there was a simple reason why, despite being more aligned with the leader role, women were not considered to become leaders as frequently; she writes, “since men have been in charge of everything forever because they designed all the systems where people who were not men would contribute their labor either freely or for undervalued wages, it is worked out well for them to run everything” (Kerpen, 2018, para. 9). Utilizing Kerpen’s explanation, it is clearer to claim that Spencer’s (2019) highlights and Carli’s (2007) explanation of the characteristics of the modern workplace authority figure grant us insight into how gender can and does play a role in whether women or men are managers or leaders. Time for much-needed change The research above shows that gender disparity in management and leadership will continue due to historical context and stagnant organizational models. Kerpen’s statement that men controlled and created every institutional system to reap the benefits is disturbing yet historically accurate. Management and leadership, as defined through agentic and communal properties, can provide a rift between gender equality in the workplace. Throughout the research, I have clarified that agentic qualities are more aligned with management, while communal qualities are aligned with leadership. Those distinctions help explain that men are more agentic and, therefore, managerial, which prompts the response that women are more communal and, therefore, more prone to leadership. It can even be argued that women would make even better leaders due to this distinction. But, as we have learned through historical context, the patriarchal societal norms constrict the growth in both gender equality and the foray into management and leadership. This explanation speaks to Eagly and Carli’s idea of a double bind women face in the workplace (2007). More communal women will not be considered strong leaders because of their “soft” persona or demeanor. More agentic women are viewed as too harsh and not communal enough. It is a struggle that continues in the modern workplace. To fully understand why these distinctions have been made for so long, I turned to historical context to explain. Men have been considered the standard bearers in organizational management and leadership for so long now that society has come to expect men in leadership roles. Women never had an opportunity to grow and climb in an organization because of societal structures. Over time, the structures and parameters have slowly begun to break down, but we are still far from eliminating them. Women will continue to struggle in organizational structures Until such a time. Conclusion Although I argue that this distinction between management and leadership, and men and women, continues to be a pervasive issue in the modern workplace, I am not ignorant that there are continued attempts to remedy gender inequalities across all workplaces. It is essential to continue to aim toward gender equality in the workplace, especially when society has had these strict gender parameters for so long. A much-needed change should happen, and as professionals, we need to continue supporting efforts to instill those changes. Everything takes time; if we continue to make conscious efforts toward gender equality in the workplace, our organizations will continue to grow, succeed, and influence change in other organizations. History should not be the enemy of progression, but it can sometimes cloud the judgment of organizational leaders, allowing them to continue to operate as they always have. Breaking the mold is difficult, but, as mentioned, women are stepping up and fighting against these inequalities daily through movements such as “Me Too.” Change is good; changes to the norms of gender inequalities are even better. References: Arthrell, Eric (April 2019). Status, Fear, and Solitude: Men and gender equality at the top. Retrieved August 12, 2019 from https://www2.deloitte.com/insights/us/en/topics/value-of-diversity-and-inclusion/male-perspective-on-gender-equality-and-leadership.html Carli, Linda and Alice Eagly (2007), Women and the Labyrinth of Leadership. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved August 12, 2019 from https://learn.granite.edu/pluginfile.php/1828447/mod_resource/content/1/Women%20and%20the%20Labyrinth%20of%20leadership.pdf Elliott, Carole and Valerie Stead (2008), Learning from Leading Women’s Experience: Towards a Sociological Understanding. SAGE Publications. Retrieved August 31, 2019 from https://learn.granite.edu/pluginfile.php/1828446/mod_resource/content/4/Learning%20from%20leading%20womens%20experience.pdf Kerpen, Carrie (December 2018). How Will We Reach Gender Parity in Leadership? One Workplace at a Time. Retrieved August 12, 2019 from https://www.forbes.com/sites/carriekerpen/2018/12/11/we-need-more-women-in-charge/#64efc4123f52 Spencer, Aaron (2019). What is Leadership? Retrieved on August 31, 2019 from https://via.hypothes.is/https://granite.pressbooks.pub/ld820/chapter/2/#annotations:_7auYrFQEem7ycNn0CcHjg Studies, G., & College, G. (2019). Cultivating Your Leadership Capabilities. Retrieved July 5, 2019 from https://via.hypothes.is/https://granite.pressbooks.pub/ld820/chapter/9/#annotations:kHP0yrtyEemlkvNgLYcxfg

Gender and the role it plays in management and leadership. By McKillop, D (2019) Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under : CC BY: Attribution with attribution required.

Emotional Intelligence

smm1123 — Fri, 17 May 2019 15:09:17 +0000

In recent years, studies regarding emotions have become more prevalent as new innovative technology has made it possible to view the human brain at work (Caruso & Salovey, 2004). We can now see firsthand how the brain operates while we think. This new neurobiological data allows one to see how the brain reacts when someone feels happy, sad, angry and loved (Caruso & Salovey, 2004). Peter Salovey and David Caruso suggest that the brain’s center of emotion is an integral part of what it means to think, reason, and be intelligent, thus making emotional intelligence a crucial component in understanding one’s own emotions and the emotions of others (Caruso & Salovey, 2004). To better understand emotional intelligence, one must first investigate its two component terms, emotion, and intelligence. Salovey, Bracket, & Mayer (2007) propose that emotions are organized responses crossing the brain's physiological, cognitive, motivational, and experiential subsystems. Once viewed as “disorganized interruptions of mental activity that should be controlled or acute disturbances of the individual as a whole, emotions are now seen as “motivating forces which are processes which arouse, sustain, and direct activity” (Salovey, Bracket, & Mayer, 2007, p. 2). While the definition of intelligence varies from one theorist to the following, current conceptualizations suggest that intelligence involves the ability to learn and retain knowledge, recognize problems and put knowledge to use; and solve problems, taking the information one has learned and applying it to find solutions to problems they encounter in the world around them (Cherry, 2018). Emotional Intelligence- Salovey and Mayer Theory The first academic use of emotional intelligence (EI) came from Wayne Leon Payne in 1986 when he wrote an unpublished doctorate titled “A Study of Emotion: Developing Emotional Intelligence.” It wasn’t until 1990, when Peter Salovey and John Mayer published the first paper on EI in a scientific psychological journal, that the concept of EI became more publicly recognized (Bechtoldt, 2008). In the article, Salovey and Mayer contemplated ways to measure the differences in areas of emotion. They realized that when it comes to identifying their feelings, and the feelings of others and solving problems related to emotional issues, some people manage better than others (Bechtoldt, 2008). Salovey and Mayer defined emotional intelligence as a “subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Bechtoldt, 2008). They went on to define EI again in 1997:

the ability to perceive accurately, appraise and express emotions;
the ability to access and generate feelings when they facilitate thought;
the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge;
and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth. (Mayer & Salovey, 1997a, p. 10)

Salovey & Mayer Four Branch Model Salovey and Mayer developed the Four-Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence. The four branches consist of:

Emotional Perception and Expression
Emotional Facilitation of Thought (Using Emotional Intelligence)
Emotional Understanding
Emotional Management

Emotional perception and expression relate to the ability to identify emotions in one’s physical and psychological states; the ability to identify emotions in others; the ability to express emotions accurately and to express needs related to them; and finally, the ability to discriminate between accurate/honest and inaccurate/dishonest, feelings (Salovey et al., 2007). According to Salovey, Brackett, and Mayer (2007), achieving emotional intelligence is impossible without these competencies in the first branch. Emotional intelligence involves registering, attending to, and deciphering emotional messages expressed in facial expressions, voice tone, or cultural artifacts. A person who sees the fleeting expression of fear in the face of another understands much more about the other person’s emotions and thoughts than someone who misses such a signal (Salovey et al., 2007). The second branch of emotional intelligence concerns the emotional facilitation of cognitive activities. It involves using emotions to harness and facilitate various cognitive activities, such as thinking and problem-solving (Grewal & Salovey, 2005). Emotions prioritize thinking. In other words, something we respond to emotionally gets our attention. Having a sound system of emotional input, therefore, should be helped direct thinking toward truly important matters” (Mayer & Salovey, 1997b, p. 1) Understanding and Analyzing Emotions is the third branch of Salovey and Mayer’s Four Brand Model. This third branch “concerns the ability to understand emotions and to utilize emotional knowledge” (Salovey et al., 2007, p. 38). It involves recognizing the relationship between words and emotions themselves and the causes of emotion; interpreting the meaning that emotions convey regarding relationships; understanding complex feelings; and recognizing transitions among emotions, such as the transition from anger to the satisfaction or from anger to shame (Salovey et al., 2007). The fourth branch of Salovey and Mayer’s emotional intelligence model is Emotional Management. “The ability to reflectively regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth is a critical component of being emotionally intelligent” (Freudenthaler & Neubauer, 2007, p. 36.). The ability to manage emotions is the most advanced skill of EI. It involves staying open to pleasant and unpleasant feelings and “represents an interface of many factors, including emotional and cognitive factors that must be recognized and balanced to manage and cope with feelings successfully” (Freudenthaler & Neubauer, 2007, p. 36.). Emotional Intelligence-The Goleman Theory While Salovey and Mayer were the first to publish an article on emotional intelligence, the true popularity of the term and concept of EI didn’t occur until 1995 when Dan Goleman published “Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More than IQ” (Bechtoldt, 2008). Goleman claimed that EI is more critical than Intelligent Quotient (IQ) to enjoying a successful life and maintaining fruitful and secure relationships with others (Karafyllis & Ulshofer, 2008). Goleman proposed a new definition of intelligence which included qualities such as optimism, self-control, and moral character and suggested that unlike general intelligence, which is viewed as stable over time, EI can be learned and increased at any time during one’s life (Karafyllis & Ulshofer, 2008). He also proposes that EI has a moral dimension stating that “emotional literacy goes hand and hand with education for character and moral development and citizenship” (Karafyllis & Ulshofer, 2008, p.135). Goleman’s Four Competencies of Emotional Intelligence Goleman defined emotional intelligence as “the ability to identify, assess, and control one’s own emotions, the emotions of others, and that of groups” (Karafyllis & Ulshofer, 2008, p.135). For this paper, the focus will be on Goleman’s four emotional intelligent competencies, which include Goleman’s applied definitions and study of competency in self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management. Self-Awareness. Self-awareness is one of the most recognized components of emotional intelligence. It entails knowing what one feels at any given time and understanding how those moods impact others (Karafyllis & Ulshofer, 2008). Peter Northouse indicates that self-awareness is how individuals understand themselves, including their strengths and weaknesses and their impact on others (Northouse, 2013). In addition, processing self-awareness includes “reflecting on your core values, identity, emotions, motives, and goals while coming to grip with who you are at the deepest level” (Northouse, 2013, p. 263). Emotional intelligence specialist Rachel Green, director of the Emotional Intelligence Institute, defines self-awareness as “the skill in perceiving and understanding one’s own emotions” (Green, n.d., p. 1). She admits there are many aspects to this, including:

Being able to know how you feel.
Being able to understand the emotions that are driving your behavior, thinking, or memory.
Being aware of the emotions behind what you are saying and how you relate to and communicate with people.
Understanding what triggers emotions in you, including; bias, prejudice, and intolerance.
Understanding the reasons behind some of your emotions. Some emotions arise because of our history and not always because of our immediate situation. (Green, n.d., p.5)

Self-awareness and leadership. Joseph Raelin, author of “Creating Leaderful Organizations,” writes that leaderful practice begins with a personal awareness of your capabilities (Raelin, 2003). He states that to achieve success, many of us have forgotten who we are. “We need to be awakened” (Raelin, 2003, p. 60). The process of self-discovery allows us to appreciate the mixture of life experiences that have led us to our present ways of being. Many of us decide to find an inner purpose to guide our everyday activities, while others need to become more aware of the gaps between intention and behavior (Raelin, 2003). Both require an ability to retrace one’s reasoning and the behavioral steps that have led to the actions that play out in one’s life (Raelin, 2003). Self-awareness means having a deep understanding of one’s emotions, as well as strengths and limitations, and one’s values and motives (Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002). People with strong self-awareness are realistic. They are not overly self-critical nor naively hopeful. They are honest with themselves and about themselves as well as honest about themselves with others (Goleman et al., 2002). Goleman states that self-aware leaders understand their values, goals, and dreams. They know where they are headed and why and are attuned to what feels right to them (Goleman, 2002). Self-aware people make time to reflect and think over things rather than reacting impulsively, thus bringing to their work life the thoughtful mode of self-reflection (Goleman, 2002). All these traits of self-awareness enable leaders to act with the conviction and authenticity that resonance requires (Goleman et al., 2002). When leaders know themselves and have a clear sense of who they are and what they stand for, they have a strong anchor for their decisions and actions; therefore, people often see leaders with greater self-awareness as authentic (Northouse, 2013). “If you don't understand your motivations and behaviors, it's nearly impossible to develop an understanding of others. A lack of self-awareness can also thwart your ability to think rationally and apply technical capabilities” (Wilcox, 2016, p. 11). Self-Management. Self-Management manages one’s internal states, impulses, and resources (Goleman, 2015). According to Goleman, there are six competencies related to self-management, including:

Emotional Self-Control: Keeping disruptive emotions and impulses in check.
Transparency: Maintaining integrity.
Adaptability: Flexibility in handling change.
Achievement: Striving to improve or meet a standard of excellence.
Initiative: Readiness to act on opportunities.
Optimism: Persistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbacks. (Goleman, 2015, p. 5)

Other noted definitions of self-management refer to: The developmental (or anomic, when poorly executed) process of relating internal/individual (intention) to external/individual (behavior). It relates to all that we have evolved as a species about learning, growing, and developing as human beings, physically, emotionally, mentally, and spiritually–education, training, therapy, counseling and consulting, potential human activities, physical development, and coaching. (Volckmann, 2002, p. 3). Self-management and leadership. Self-management is a component of emotional intelligence as it resembles an ongoing inner conversation, freeing us from being a prisoner of our feelings (Goleman et al., 2002). “It’s what allows the mental clarity and concentrated energy that leadership demands, and what keeps disruptive emotions from throwing us off track” (Goleman et al., 2002, p. 46). Leaders must first be able to handle their own emotions to manage those of others, and “given the reality of emotional leakage, a leader’s emotions have public consequences” (Goleman et al., 2002, p. 46). Self-management enables transparency, a leadership virtue, and a strength in any organization (Goleman et al., 2002). Transparency conveys “an authentic openness to others about one’s feelings, beliefs, and actions” (Goleman et al., 2002, p. 47). It allows integrity and a sense that a leader can be trusted. Self-management at a primal level, hinges on impulse control, keeping us from acting in ways we won’t regret (Goleman et al., 2002). “The most meaningful act of responsibility that a leader can do is to control their state of mind” (Goleman et al., 2002, p. 47). Social-Awareness and Interpersonal Skills. Social Intelligence (SI) is the ability to get along well with others (Albrecht, 2004). Often referred to as "people skills," SI embraces an awareness of situations and the social dynamics that govern them and a knowledge of interaction styles and strategies that can help a person achieve his or her objectives in dealing with others. “It also involves a certain amount of self-insight and a consciousness of one's perceptions and reaction patterns” (Albrecht, 2004, p. 1). Karl Albrecht classifies behavior toward others as falling somewhere on a spectrum between the "toxic" effect and the "nourishing" effect (Albrecht, 2004). Toxic behavior makes people feel devalued, angry, frustrated, guilty, or inadequate (Albrecht, 2004). Nourishing behavior makes people feel valued, respected, affirmed, encouraged, or competent (Albrecht, 2004). A continued pattern of toxic behavior indicates low social intelligence - the inability to connect with people and influence them effectively. A continued pattern of nourishing behavior tends to make a person much more effective in dealing with others; nourishing behaviors are the indicators of high social intelligence. (Albrecht, 2004, p. 2) Daniel Goleman contends that the main component of social awareness is empathy, the ability to perceive other people's feelings and how they see the world (Goleman, 2016). Empathy is our social radar. It requires reading another’s emotions; at a higher level, it entails sensing and responding to a person’s unspoken concerns or feelings. At the highest levels, empathy is understanding the issues or concerns behind another’s feelings.” (Goleman, 1998, p. 4) Often issues around diversity and inclusion occur because people lack exposure to people from other cultures or backgrounds. This lack of exposure can narrow our experiences and takes on the world, impeding diversity and inclusion (El-Attrash, 2017). There's little to no effect if you see somebody similar to you. However, seeing someone different than you triggers implicit bias (El-Attrash, 2017). But while instinctual biases can be linked to the science of the brain, so can practicing empathy” (El-Attrash, 2017, p. 6). “The key to embracing diversity with empathy is understanding ourselves better." We can’t connect and be real with others if we can’t be honest with ourselves” (El-Attrash, 2017, p. 9). Frieda Edgette, Certified Executive Coach and Organizational Strategist, suggest five ways to reset your empathy:

Be authentic. Seek a better understanding of who you are. Develop self-awareness by exploring your identity, background, principles, and life experiences.
Self-manage. What is your natural response when presented with differences or conflict? Do you fight, flee or freeze up? Take note of your default response. Develop an “at the moment” strategy to practice self-control, like taking a deep breath, running, or assuming a power pose.
Practice active listening. When interacting with others, watch verbal and non-verbal cues. Make sure you immediately turn your inner voice off and focus entirely on the other person.
Get curious. Ask open-ended questions that start with “what” or “how.” What experiences shaped the other person’s life? Where do they get their information? What’s most important to them? Your only mission is to understand.
Respect, connect. By being more open and respectful of one another, we can improve communications and connect better, resulting in enhanced communications and productivity (El-Attrash, 2017).

Social awareness and leadership. Being aware of how others are feeling requires the ability to put ourselves in the shoes of others and to understand what another person is experiencing (Gassam, 2018). “More empathetic leaders may be more effective at fostering diverse and inclusive workplaces” (Gassam, 2018, p. 1). “At the most fundamental level, leadership requires an interaction between at least two individuals, where one individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (Northouse, 2013, p. 5). Therefore, social awareness entails being aware of others, their feelings, moods, and motivations. According to the Center of Creative Leadership, socially aware leaders who have empathy perform better and “are better able to keep employees engaged, while employees with empathy provide customers with the very best experience” (Goleman, 2016, p. 7). Leaders with high social awareness skills will have an easier time navigating and managing people from various backgrounds. “Being an empathic leader means respecting and relating to people from varied backgrounds and perspectives. This will help create a workplace environment where diverse people can thrive, leading to organizational learning and consummate success” (the University of Florida Training and Organizational Development, n.d., p. 2). Several researchers have indicated that a leader's primary responsibility is to support their followers (Carter, Lamm & Lamm, n.d.). In their research, Yukl, Gordon, and Taber (2002) defined supporting as “showing consideration, acceptance, and concern for the needs and feelings of other people” (Carter et al., n.d., p. 20). Leaders who support their followers are more accountable with higher levels of obligation (Carter et al., n.d). They are more effective in helping those followers solve problems and, through the process, provide developmental opportunities (Carter et al., n.d.). However, researchers have also cautioned against the overuse of support for followers. “In cases where follower responsibility is deferred to the leader, the leader has been seen as a scapegoat or surrogate for individual responsibility” (Carter et al., n.d., p. 187). Relationship Management. Relationship management is especially important for fostering diversity and inclusion in the workplace. People skilled in managing relationships are better equipped to handle conflict by drawing out all parties and helping others understand differing perspectives and common ideals everyone can endorse (Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002). Individuals skilled in relationship management value teamwork and encourage a friendly and safe atmosphere, modeling respect, helpfulness, and cooperation (Goleman et al., 2002). “These competencies are critical for effectively leading in a diverse organization” (Morton, 2012, p. 11). Relationship management & leadership. Relationship management has been identified as facilitating cooperation and teamwork. People who manage relationships “build spirit and identity and spend time forging and cementing close relationships beyond mere work obligations (Goleman et al., 2002, p. 256). “Leaders have been found to achieve group cohesiveness by knowing followers, actively maintaining interpersonal relationships, and encouraging group preservation activities” (Carter et al., n.d., p. 187). All relationships take work, time, effort, and know-how. The know-how is emotional intelligence. Some approaches to help keep diverse and inclusive workplace relationships healthy and thriving include:

Continuously build trust
- Be consistent in your words and actions
Tackle tough conversations
- Look for agreement or common ground
- Make sure people feel “heard”
- Remain open and non-defensive
Be open and curious
- Share information about yourself
- Show genuine interest and curiosity in others
Always work on your communication style
- Pay attention to times when your style has created confusion or troubled reactions
Don’t avoid the inevitable
- Face reality
- Use empathy and common purpose
Align your intention with your impact
- Think before you speak or act
- Make careful observations (University of Florida Training and Organizational Development, n.d.).

Leaders who master personal competence by building their self-awareness and self-management skills excel at social competence and relationship management (University of Florida Training and Organizational Development, n.d.). “Their social radar is soundly padded in empathy and people skills. Leveraging those, they build enduring relationships within the workplace environment and employ strategies to keep them strong and vitally connected” (the University of Florida Training and Organizational Development, n.d., p. 3). References

Albrecht, K. (2004). Social intelligence theory. Retrieved from https://karlalbrecht.com/siprofile/siprofiletheory.htm
Bechtoldt, M.N. (2008). Emotional intelligence, professional qualifications, and the psychologists’ need for gender research. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT-Press.
Carter, H., Lamm, A., & Lamm, K. (n.d.). A theory-based model of interpersonal leadership: An integration of the literature. Journal of Leadership Education 15(4). doi: 10.12806/V15/I4/T2. Retrieved from journalofleadershiped.org/attachments/article/457/LammK_554.pdf
Caruso, D., & Salovey, P. (2004). The Emotionally Intelligent Manager. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Cherry, K. (2018). How psychologists evaluate intelligence. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/theories-of-intelligence-2795035
El-Attrash, F. (2017). How to Embrace Diversity with Empathy. Retrieved from https://www.govloop.com/embrace-diversity-empathy/
Freudenthaler, H. H., & Neubauer, A. C. (2007). Measuring emotional management abilities: Further evidence of the importance to distinguish between typical and maximum performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(8), 1561-1572. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.10.031
Gassam, J. (2018). Empathy: The Key To A Diverse And Inclusive Workplace. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/janicegassam/2018/09/25/empathy-the-key-to-a-diverse-and-inclusive-workplace/#7bed1a0c7097
Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Dell.
Goleman, D. (2015). How emotionally intelligent are you? Retrieved from http://www.danielgoleman.info/daniel-goleman-how-emotionally-intelligent-are-you/
Goleman, D. (2016). Can you read the room? Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/can-you-read-room-social-awareness-work-daniel-goleman
Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R. E., & McKee, A. (2002). Primal leadership: Learning to lead with emotional intelligence. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Goleman, D. (2018). Diversity Emotional Intelligence = More Success. Retrieved from https://www.kornferry.com/institute/diversity-emotional-intelligence-leadership
Green, R. (n.d.). The Emotional Intelligence Institute Perth, Australia. Retrieved from http://www.theeiinstitute.com/what-is-emotional-intelligence/15-high-emotional-intelligence-self-awareness.html
Grewal, D. & Salovey, P. (2005). The science of emotional intelligence. Retrieved from http://ei.yale.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2013/11/pub68_SaloveyGrewal2005_scienceofEI.pdf
Karafyllis, N. C. & Ulshofer, G. (2008). Sexualized brains: Scientific modeling of emotional intelligence from a cultural perspective. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R. & Salovey, P. (2016). The ability model of emotional intelligence: Principles and updates. Emotion Review,8(4), 290-300. doi:10.1177/1754073916639667
Mayer, J.D. & Salovey, P. (1997a). Emotional development and emotional intelligence. New York: Basic Books.
Mayer, J. D. & Salovey, P. (1997b). The four-branch model of emotional intelligence. Retrieved from http://jackiewhiting.net/Psychology/LearnIntell/EmoIntell.htm
Morton, W. (2012). Everything you need to know about emotional intelligence & leadership. Retrieved from eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzUyOTc1M19fQU41?sid=d35c96dc-db9d-4116-b60e9264a7f647a@sessionmgr4009&vid=2&format=EB&ppid=pp_12
Northouse, P. G. (2013). Leadership theory and practice. (Sixth Edition). Los Angeles: SAGE.
Raelin, J. A. (2003). Creating leaderful organizations: How to bring out leadership in Everyone. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
Salovey, P., Brackett, M. A., & Mayer, J. D. (2007). Emotional intelligence: Key readings on the Mayer and Salovey model. Port Chester, NY: Dude Pub.
University of Florida Training and Organizational Development, Office of Human Resource Services. (n.d.). Social competency and relationship management. Retrieved from http://training.hr.ufl.edu/resources/LeadershipToolkit/job_aids/SocialCompetencyandRelationshipManagement.pdf
Volckmann, R. (2002). Self-management: Integral leadership. Retrieved from http://integralleadershipreview.com/5968-feature-article-self-management-integral-leadership-eleventh-in-a-series/
Yukl, G., Gordon, A. & Taber, T. (2002). A hierarchical taxonomy of leadership behavior: Integrating a half-century of behavior research. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 9(1), 15-32. doi: 10.1177/107179190200900102
Wilcox, L. (2016). Emotional intelligence is no soft skill. Harvard Professional Development, Harvard DCE. Retrieved from https://www.extension.harvard.edu/professional-development/blog/emotional-intelligence-no-soft-skill

"How does Emotional Intelligence Create a Culture that Promotes Diversity and Inclusion in the Workplace?" Jaimee Hanscome (March 2019). CC BY 4.0

Power and Influence

smm1123 — Fri, 17 May 2019 15:09:17 +0000

Leadership Power

Power is the ability to influence the behavior of others with or without resistance by using a variety of tactics to push or prompt action. Power is the ability to get things done. People with power can influence others' behavior to achieve a goal or objective. Others may resist attempts to make them do certain things, but an effective leader can overcome that resistance. Although people may regard power as evil or corrupt, it is a fact of organizational life and is neither good nor bad. Leaders can use power to benefit or constrain others, serve the organization's goals, or undermine them. Another way to view power is as a resource people use in relationships. When a leader influences subordinates, it is called downward power. We can also think of this as someone having power over someone else. On the other hand, subordinates can also exercise upward power by trying to influence their leader's decisions. Indeed, leaders depend on their teams to get things done and, in that way, are subject to the power of team members.

The Six Sources of Power

Power comes from several sources, each of which has different effects on the targets of that power. Some derive from individual characteristics; others draw on an organization's structure. The six types of power are legitimate, referent, expert, reward, coercive, and informational.

Legitimate Power

Also called "positional power," this is the power individuals have from their role and status within an organization. Legitimate power usually involves formal authority delegated to the holder of the position.

Referent Power

Referent power comes from the ability of individuals to attract others and build their loyalty. It is based on the personality and interpersonal skills of the power holder. A person may be admired because of a specific personal trait, such as charisma or likability, and these positive feelings become the basis for interpersonal influence.

Expert Power

Expert power draws from a person's skills and knowledge and is incredibly potent when an organization needs them. Narrower than most sources of power, the power of an expert typically applies only to the specific area of the person's expertise and credibility.

Reward Power

Reward power comes from conferring valued material rewards or creating other positive incentives. It refers to the degree to which the individual can provide external motivation to others through benefits or gifts. This motivation may include promotions, pay increases, or extra time off in an organization.

Coercive Power

Coercive power is the threat and application of sanctions and other negative consequences. These can include direct punishment or the withholding of desired resources or rewards. Coercive power relies on fear to induce compliance.

Informational Power

Informational power comes from access to facts and knowledge others find helpful or valuable. That access can indicate relationships with other power holders and convey status that creates a positive impression. Informational power offers advantages in building credibility and rational persuasion. It may also serve as the basis for beneficial exchanges with others who seek that information. These sources and uses of power can be combined to achieve a single aim, and individuals can often draw on more than one. The more sources of power to which a person has access, the greater the individual's overall power and ability to get things done.

Power Tactics

People use a variety of power tactics to push or prompt others into action. We can group these tactics into three categories: behavioral, rational, and structural. Behavioral tactics can be soft or hard. Soft tactics take advantage of the relationship between a person and the target. These tactics are more direct and interpersonal and can involve collaboration or other social interactions. Conversely, brutal tactics are harsh, forceful, and direct and rely on concrete outcomes. However, they are not necessarily more powerful than soft tactics. In many circumstances, fear of social exclusion can be a stronger motivator than physical punishment. Rational influence tactics use reasoning, logic, and objective judgment, whereas nonrational tactics rely on emotionalism and subjectivity. Examples include bargaining and persuasion (rational), evasion, and put-downs (nonrational). Structural tactics exploit aspects of the relationship between individual roles and positions. Bilateral tactics, such as collaboration and negotiation, involve reciprocity on the parts of both the person influencing and the target. On the other hand, unilateral tactics are enacted without any participation on the part of the target. These tactics include disengagement and fait accompli. Political approaches, such as playing two against one, take yet another approach to exert influence. People tend to vary in power tactics, with different types opting for different tactics. For instance, interpersonally-oriented people use soft tactics, while extroverts employ more powerful tactics than introverts. Studies have shown that men use bilateral and direct tactics, whereas women use unilateral and indirect tactics. People will also choose different tactics based on the group situation and according to whom they are trying to influence. In the face of resistance, people are more likely to shift from soft to brutal tactics to achieve their aims.

A Leader's Influence. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/defining-leadership-68/a-leader-s-influence-340-1045/index.html Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required.

The Role of Influence in Leadership

Influence occurs when a person's emotions, opinions, or behaviors are affected by others. It is essential to a leader's ability to use power and maintain respect in an organization. Influence is apparent through peer pressure, socialization, conformity, obedience, and persuasion. The ability to influence is an essential asset for leaders and an important skill for those in sales, marketing, politics, and law. In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence: compliance, identification, and internalization. Compliance involves people behaving the way others expect them to, whether or not they agree. Obeying the instructions of a crossing guard or an authority figure is an example of compliance. Identification is when people behave according to what they think is valued by those who are well-liked and respected, such as celebrities. Status is a crucial aspect of identification: when people purchase something highly coveted by many others, such as the latest smartphone, they are influenced by identification. Internalization is when people accept, either explicitly or privately, a belief or set of values that leads to behavior that reflects those values. An example is following the tenets of one's religion.

How Leaders Use Influence

In an organization, a leader can use these three types of influence to motivate people and achieve objectives. For example, compliance is a means of maintaining order in the workplace, such as when employees are expected to follow the rules set by their supervisors. Similarly, identification happens when people seek to imitate and follow the actions of people they look up to and respect, for example, a more experienced co-worker or trusted supervisor. Internalization results when employees embrace the vision and values of a leader and develop a commitment to fulfilling them. Leaders use these types of influence to motivate the behaviors and actions needed to accomplish tasks and achieve goals. Individuals differ in how susceptible they are to each type of influence. Some workers may care enormously about what others think of them and thus be more amenable to identifying the cues for how to behave. Others may want to believe strongly in their actions and seek to internalize values to guide them. In organizations and most parts of life, sources of influence are all around us. As a result, our behavior can be shaped by how others communicate with us and how we see them.

Sources of Power. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/defining-leadership-68/sources-of-power-339-7332/index.html Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required.

Developing Leadership Skills

smm1123 — Fri, 17 May 2019 15:09:17 +0000

Methods of Leadership Development

Leader development occurs through formal instruction, developmental job assignments, 360-degree feedback, executive coaching, and self-directed learning. These approaches may occur independently but are more effective in combination.

Formal Training

Organizations often offer formal training programs to their leaders. Traditional styles provide leaders with the required knowledge and skills in a particular area using coursework, practice, "overlearning" with rehearsals, and feedback (Kozlowski, 1998). This traditional lecture-based classroom training is valuable; however, its limitations include a leader's ability to transfer the information from a training environment to a work setting.

Developmental Job Assignment

Organizations can assign leaders to developmental jobs targeting newly acquired skills following formal training. A developmental job is one in which leaders learn, undergo personal change, and gain leadership skills resulting from the roles, responsibilities, and tasks involved in that job. Developmental job assignments are one of the most effective forms of leader development. A "stretch" or developmental assignment challenges leaders' new skills. It pushes them out of their comfort zone to operate in a more complex environment that involves new elements, problems, and dilemmas to resolve.

360-Degree Feedback

The 360-degree feedback approach is a necessary component of leader development that allows leaders to maximize learning opportunities from their current assignments. It systematically provides leaders with perceptions of their performance from various viewpoints, including subordinates, peers, superiors, and the leader's self-assessment. With information coming from many different sources, the messages may be contradictory and difficult to interpret; however, when several various sources concur on a similar perspective, whether strength or weakness, the clarity of the message increases. For this mechanism to be effective, the leader must accept feedback, be open, and be willing to make changes. Coaching is an effective way to facilitate 360-degree feedback and help effect change using open discussion.

Coaching

Leadership coaching focuses on enhancing the leader's effectiveness, along with the effectiveness of the team and organization. It involves an intense, one-on-one relationship to impart essential lessons through assessment, challenge, and support. Although the goal of coaching is sometimes to correct a fault, it is used increasingly to help already successful leaders move to the next level of increased responsibilities and new and complex challenges. Coaching moves leaders toward measurable goals that contribute to individual and organizational growth.

Self-directed Learning

Using self-directed learning, individual leaders teach themselves new skills by selecting areas for development, choosing learning avenues, and identifying resources. This type of development is a self-paced process that aims to acquire new skills and gain a broader perspective on leadership responsibilities and what it takes to succeed as a leader.

Leadership Development Models

McCauley, Van Veslor, and Ruderman (2010) described a two-part model for developing leaders. The first part identifies three elements that strengthen developmental experiences: assessment, challenge, and support. Assessment lets leaders know where they stand in strengths, current performance levels, and developmental needs. Challenging experiences stretch leaders' ability to work outside their comfort zone, develop new skills and abilities, and provide essential learning opportunities. Support—which comes in the form of bosses, co-workers, friends, family, coaches, and mentors—enables leaders to handle the struggle of developing. The second part of the leader-development model illustrates that the development process involves a variety of developmental experiences and the ability to learn from them. These experiences and the ability to learn also impact each other: leaders with a high ability to learn from experience will seek out developmental experiences, and through these experiences, leaders increase their ability to learn. The leader-development process is rooted in a particular leadership context, including age, culture, economic conditions, population gender, organizational purpose and mission, and business strategy. This environment molds the leader development process. Leadership contexts are essential aspects of the leader-development model, along with assessment, challenge, and support.

Developing Leadership Skills. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/developing-leadership-skills-74/developing-leadership-skills-365-3463/index.html Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required.

Katz Three Skills

smm1123 — Fri, 17 May 2019 15:09:17 +0000

Robert Katz identifies three critical skill sets for successful leaders: technical skills, interpersonal (or human) skills, and conceptual skills. Leaders must possess specific technical skills that assist them in optimizing managerial performance. While these three broad skill categories encompass a wide spectrum of capabilities, each describes how these skills interact with management at various levels.

Skills of Successful Leaders

Defining Technical Skills

Of the three skill sets identified by Katz, technical skills are the broadest, most easily defined category. A technical skill is a learned capacity in just about any field of work, study, or even play. For example, the quarterback of a football team must know how to plant his feet and position his arm for accuracy and distance—both technical skills. A mechanic needs to be able to deconstruct and reconstruct an engine, employ various machinery (lifts, computer scanning equipment, etc.), and install a muffler.

Leaders also need a broad range of technical know-how. All industries need management, and management must exist at various organizational levels. A technical skill for a leader might include a working understanding of a piece of equipment: the ability to coach the employee on its operation, as well as communicate to people the essential functions of the machinery. Leaders in other corporate roles and at higher levels require critical technical skills. These can include office-based competencies such as typing, programming, website maintenance, writing, giving presentations, and using software such as Microsoft Office or Adobe. Office environments require complex communicative, technological, and data-organization skills to optimize managerial performance. Successful organizational leaders must learn to use technological assets, collecting critical information and data to communicate upward for strategic planning. An example of information management is a mid-level manager in the automotive industry responsible for recognizing global marketing potential. This individual must realize the legal, demographic, social, technological, and economic considerations of entering a market; the manager will use effective research and delegation skills and consolidate the information into a helpful presentation using technological and communicative skills. Katz postulates that the higher up in the organization an individual rises, the more conceptual skills (and fewer technical skills) are necessary. Senior managers need fewer technical skills because strategic decision-making is inherently more conceptual; mid and lower-level skills such as data collection, assessment, and discussion are more technical. All management disciplines require various skill sets for effective business processes.

Conceptual Skills

Conceptual skills revolve around generating ideas through creative intuitions and a comprehensive understanding of a given context.

Conceptual skills represent one of the three skill sets identified by Robert Katz as critical to a leader's success in an organization. While each skill set is helpful in different circumstances, conceptual skills tend to be most relevant in upper-level thinking and broad strategic situations (as opposed to lower-level and line management). As a result, conceptual skills are often viewed as critical success factors of leadership.

Conceptual thinking is difficult to define but can generally be considered the ability to formulate ideas or mental abstractions in the mind. Conceptual skills primarily revolve around generating ideas, utilizing a combination of creative intuitions and a comprehensive understanding of a given context (i.e., incumbent‘s industry, organizational mission and objectives, competitive dynamics, etc.). When combined with a variety of information and a degree of creativity, conceptual thinking results in new ideas, unique strategies, and differentiation.

While all levels of leaders benefit from conceptual thinking, upper leadership spends the most time within this frame of mind (instead of thinking more technically—looking at and working with the detailed elements of a given operation or business process). Leaders are primarily tasked with identifying and drafting a strategy for an organization's broader operational and competitive approach. This strategic planning includes generating organizational values, policies, mission statements, ethics, procedures, and objectives. Creating this complex mix of concepts to use as an organizational foundation requires many conceptual skills—formulating concepts and predicting their effects in an organizational setting.

While upper-level leaders may use conceptual skills the most, all leaders must understand and participate in generating company objectives and values. Of particular importance are the abilities to communicate these critical concepts to subordinates and gather helpful information to convey to upper management so that the concepts can evolve. Collecting the results of conceptual thinking represents a feedback loop. Conceptual skills are essential in empowering leaders at all levels of an organization to observe the operations of an organization and frame them conceptually as an aspect of that organization’s strategy, objectives, and policies. Conceptual thinking allows for accurate and timely feedback and organizational adaptability.

Interpersonal Skills

Over the years, the standard definition of management has become less specific, as managerial functions can include staffing, directing, and reporting. Modern companies have fewer layers of management, as these companies instead rely on delegating responsibilities and authority to achieve goals. As a result, businesses often speak of leading or guiding people rather than giving instructions for every action. Leading people represents a central component of human skills. Interpersonal skills differentiate a manager from a leader. A manager is simply manipulating resources to achieve a given objective, while a leader appeals to the human side of employees to generate creativity and motivation. These concepts of “manager” and “leader” can be distinguished within a team setting. A team leader who is unconcerned with team members’ needs or who has a personal agenda perceived to be more important than the team’s goals is more of a manager than a leader and may alienate team members. Conversely, team leaders who are admired and loyally followed show concern for the team members as individuals with real needs who place their team above their agendas. Realistically, most organizations need leaders who can view their teams analytically and objectively, evaluating inefficiencies and making unpopular choices. However, it is misleading to think that a manager has to be distant from or disliked by subordinates to execute these responsibilities. Creating a healthy environment conducive to development, criticism, and higher degrees of achievement requires solid human skills, particularly in communication.

Skills of a Retail Manager. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-retailmanagement/chapter/skills-of-a-retail-manager/ From: Additional Roles and Skills of Managers. CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

Approaches and theories

smm1123 — Fri, 24 Mar 2023 14:50:33 +0000

Trait, contingency, behavioral, and full-range theories

smm1123 — Fri, 17 May 2019 15:09:17 +0000

Researchers have examined leadership for several years to discover how successful leaders are created. Experts have proposed several theories, including the trait, behavioral, contingency, and full-range leadership models.

The Trait Theory of Leadership

The search for the characteristics or traits of influential leaders has been central to the study of leadership. Underlying this research is the assumption that leadership capabilities are rooted in characteristics possessed by individuals. Research in the field of trait theory has shown significant positive relationships between effective leadership and personality traits such as intelligence, extroversion, conscientiousness, self-efficacy, and openness to experience. These findings also show that individuals emerge as leaders across various situations and tasks.

Four Theories of Leadership. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/defining-leadership-68/four-theories-of-leadership-344-7580/index.html Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required.

According to trait leadership theory, influential leaders have in common a pattern of personal characteristics that support their ability to mobilize others toward a shared vision. These traits include personality and motives dimensions, skills and capabilities, and behavior in social relationships. Using traits to explain effective leadership considers both characteristics that are inherited and attributes that are learned. This approach has been used to differentiate leaders from non-leaders. Understanding the importance of these traits can help organizations select, train, and develop leaders.

Leaders' Traits

Following studies of trait leadership, most leader traits can be organized into four groups:

Personality: Patterns of behavior, such as adaptability and comfort with ambiguity, and dispositional tendencies, such as motives and values, are associated with effective leadership.
Demographic: In this category, gender has received by far the most attention in terms of leadership; however, most scholars have found that gender is not a determining demographic trait, as male and female leaders are equally effective.
Task competence: This relates to how individuals approach the execution and performance of tasks—Hoffman groups intelligence, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and emotional stability into this category.
Interpersonal attributes: These relate to how a leader approaches social interactions. According to Hoffman and others (2011), traits such as extroversion and agreeableness are included in this category.

The Trait Theory Approach. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/trait-approach-69/the-trait-theory-approach-345-3943/index.html Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required.

The Contingency Theory of Leadership

Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across several studies, the overall evidence suggested that leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. According to this contingency theory approach, no single psychological profile or set of enduring traits links directly to effective leadership. Instead, the interaction between those individual traits and the prevailing conditions creates effective leadership. In other words, contingency theory proposes that effective leadership is contingent on factors independent of an individual leader. As such, the theory predicts that influential leaders are those whose personal traits match the needs of the situation in which they find themselves. Fiedler's contingency model of leadership focuses on the interaction of leadership style and the situation (later called situational control). He identified three relevant aspects of the situation: the quality of the leader's relationships with others, how well-structured their tasks were, and the leader's amount of formal authority.

The Behavioral Theory of Leadership

In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors. They evaluated what successful leaders did, developed a taxonomy of actions, and identified broad patterns that indicated different leadership styles. The behavioral theory also incorporates B.F. Skinner's behavior modification theory considers the effect of reward and punishment on changing behavior. An example of this theory in action is a manager or leader who motivates desired behavior by scolding employees who arrive late to meetings and showing appreciation when they are early or on time.

The Full-Range Theory of Leadership

The full-range theory of leadership is a component of transformational leadership, which enhances motivation and morale by connecting the employee's sense of identity to a project and the collective identity of the organization. The four major components of the theory, which cover the full range of essential qualities of a good leader, are:

Individualized consideration: the degree to which the leader attends to each follower's concerns and needs and acts as a mentor or coach
Intellectual stimulation: the degree to which the leader challenges assumptions, takes risks and solicits followers' ideas
Inspirational motivation: the degree to which the leader articulates a vision that is appealing and inspiring to followers
Idealized influence: the degree to which the leader provides a role model for high ethical behavior, instills pride, and gains respect and trust

Styles and Traits theory. By Rebecca Jewett-Geragosian, (2018). Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required.

Path Goal Theory and Outstanding Leadership Theory

smm1123 — Fri, 17 May 2019 15:09:17 +0000

In 1971, Robert House introduced his version of a contingent theory of leadership known as the Path-Goal theory. According to House's theory, leaders' behavior is contingent upon their subordinates' satisfaction, motivation, and performance. House argued that the leader's goal is to help followers identify their personal goals and understand the organization's goals and find the path that will best help them achieve both. Because individual motivations and goals differ, leaders must modify their approach to fit the situation.

Leadership Styles

House defined four different leadership styles and noted that good leaders switch fluidly between them as the situation demands. He believed that leadership styles do not define types of leaders as much as they do types of behaviors. House's leadership styles include:

The directive, path-goal clarifying leader: The leader clearly defines what is expected of followers and tells them how to perform their tasks. The theory argues that this behavior has the most positive effect when the subordinates' role and task demands are ambiguous and intrinsically satisfying.
Achievement-oriented leader: The leader sets challenging goals for followers, expects them to perform at their highest level, and shows confidence in their ability to meet these expectations. Occupations in which the achievement motive was most predominant were technical jobs, salespersons, scientists, engineers, and entrepreneurs.
Participative leader: The leader seeks to collaborate with followers and involve them in decision-making. This behavior is dominant when subordinates are highly personally involved in their work.
Supportive leader: The central role of the leader is to be responsive to followers' emotional and psychological needs. This behavior is especially needed when tasks or relationships are psychologically or physically distressing.

The Path-Goal model emphasizes the importance of the leader's ability to interpret followers' needs accurately and respond flexibly to a situation's requirements.

Outstanding Leadership Theory (OLT)

In 1994, House published Organizational Behavior: The State of the Science with Philip Podsakoff. House and Podsakoff attempted to summarize the behaviors and approaches of "outstanding leaders" obtained from more modern theories and research findings. Using the Path-Goal model as a framework, their Outstanding Leadership Theory (OLT) expanded the list of leadership behaviors required to channel follower's motivations and goals more effectively toward the leader's vision:

Vision: Leaders can communicate a vision that meshes with the values of their followers.
Passion and self-sacrifice: Leaders believe fully in their vision and are willing to sacrifice to achieve it.
Confidence, determination, and persistence: Leaders are confident their vision is correct and take necessary action to reach it.
Image-building: Leaders are cognizant of how their followers perceive them. They strive to ensure followers view them in a positive light.
Role-modeling: Leaders seek to model qualities such as credibility and trustworthiness that their followers would seek to emulate.
External representation: Leaders are spokespersons for their organizations (for example, Steve Jobs).
Expectations of and confidence in followers: Leaders trust their followers can succeed and expect them to do so.
Selective motive-arousal: Leaders can hone in on specific motives in followers and use them to push their followers to reach a goal.
Frame alignment: Leaders align specific interests, values, actions, etc., between leadership and followers to inspire positive action.
Inspirational communication: Leaders can inspire followers to act using verbal and non-verbal communication.

Leadership and task follower characteristics. Content source: http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/contingency-approach-71/leadership-and-task-follower-characteristics-house-353-4005/index.html Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required.

A Leader's Vision

smm1123 — Fri, 17 May 2019 15:09:18 +0000

A clear and well-communicated vision is essential for a leader to gain support and for followers to understand a leader's goals.

A vision is defined as a clear, distinctive, and specific view of the future and is usually connected with strategic organizational advances. Influential leaders will clearly define a vision and communicate it in such a way as to foster enthusiasm and commitment throughout the organization. This ability to express and use a vision to inspire others differentiates a leader from a manager. Many researchers believe that vision is an essential quality of influential leaders, as important as the ability to communicate and build trust. Leaders' decisions and strategies reflect their view of what an enterprise can be rather than what it currently is. A strong leader builds trust in the vision by consistently acting with it and demonstrating to others what it takes to make it a reality. Vision is an essential component of an organization's success. A thriving organization will have a succinct vision indicative of the company is direction and widely understood throughout all levels. The more employees know, understand, and believe in the vision, the more valuable it is in directing their behavior daily. Vision and mission are sometimes used interchangeably, but a helpful distinction exists. A vision describes an organization's direction, while its mission defines its purpose. By focusing on the value an organization creates, the mission helps prioritize activities and provides a framework for decision-making. Vision also plays a significant role in a leader's strategy for the organization. By setting the direction, a vision underscores the necessity of all the areas of a business working toward the same goal. This unity of purpose often involves changing what is done and how, and aligning the activities and behavior of people is critical to fulfilling a leader's vision. A vision reduces ambiguity and provides focus—two benefits especially valuable in turbulent or rapidly changing times.

A Leader's Vision. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/defining-leadership-68/a-leader-s-vision-341-880/index.html Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required.

Situational Leadership

smm1123 — Fri, 17 May 2019 15:09:18 +0000

Introduction

Situational theories of leadership work under the assumption that the most effective style of leadership changes from situation to situation. To be most effective and successful, a leader must be able to adapt his style and approach to diverse circumstances. For example, some employees function better under a leader who is more autocratic and directive. For others, success will be more likely if the leader can step back and trust his team to make decisions and carry out plans without the leader’s direct involvement. On a similar note, not all industries and business settings require the same skills and leadership traits in equal measure. Some fields demand a considerable measure of innovation, whereas, in others, personal charisma and relational connection with clients are far more critical. Different theories have been developed that recognize the situational aspects of leadership. Each theory analyzes how leadership can be most successful in various situations.

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

The term “situational leadership” is most commonly derived from and connected with Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory. This approach to leadership suggests the need to match two key elements appropriately: the leader’s leadership style and the followers’ maturity or preparedness levels. The theory identifies four main leadership approaches:

Telling: Directive and authoritative approach. The leader makes decisions and tells employees what to do.
Selling: The leader is still the decision-maker but communicates and works to persuade the employees rather than simply directing them.
Participating: The leader works with the team members to make decisions together. He supports and encourages them and is more democratic.
Delegating: The leader assigns decision-making responsibility to team members but oversees their work.

In addition to these four approaches to leadership, there are also four levels of follower maturity:

Level M1: Followers have low competence and low commitment.
Level M2: Followers have low competence but high commitment.
Level M3: Followers have high competence but low commitment and confidence.
Level M4: Followers have high competence and high commitment, and confidence.

In Hersey and Blanchard’s approach, the key to successful leadership is matching the proper leadership style to the corresponding maturity level of the employees. As a general rule, each of the four leadership styles is appropriate for the corresponding employee maturity level:

The telling style works best for leading employees at the M1 level (low competence, low commitment).
The selling style works best for leading employees at the M2 level (low competence, high commitment).
The participating style works best for leading employees at the M3 level (high competence, low commitment/confidence).
The delegating style works best for leading employees at the M4 level (high competence, high commitment/confidence).

Maturity levels and leadership styles

Identifying the employee maturity level becomes a very important part of the process, and the leader must be willing and able to use any of the four leadership styles as needed.

Goleman’s Model of Situational Leadership

Daniel Goleman has developed another situational theory of leadership. His theory incorporates his development of the concept of emotional intelligence. He develops that idea into six categories of situational leadership, describing the leadership style and suggesting when each style is most appropriate and likely to be successful:

Pacesetting Leader	The leader sets aggressive goals and standards and drives employees to reach them. This works with highly motivated and competent employees but can lead to burnout due to the high energy demands and stress levels.
Authoritative Leader	The leader authoritatively provides direction and goals for the team, expecting the team to follow his lead. The details are often left up to the team members. This works well when clear direction is needed but can be problematic if the team members are highly experienced and knowledgeable and might resent being dictated to.
Affiliative Leader	Positive reinforcement and morale-boosting style. The leader praises and encourages the employees, refraining from criticism or reprimand. The goal is to foster team bonding, connectedness, and a sense of belonging. This approach works best in times of stress and trauma or when trust needs to be rebuilt. It is not likely to be sufficient as a long-term or exclusive strategy.
Coaching Leader	The leader focuses on helping individual employees build their skills and develop their talents. This approach works best when employees are receptive to guidance and willing to hear about their weaknesses and where to improve.
Democratic Leader	The leader intentionally involves followers in decision-making by seeking their opinion and allowing them a voice in the final decision. This works well when the leader needs guidance and/or the employees are highly qualified to contribute, and there are no strenuous time constraints that require quick decisions.
Coercive Leader	The leader acts as the ultimate authority and demands immediate compliance with directions, even applying pressure as needed. This can be appropriate in times of crisis or disaster, but is not advisable in healthy situations.

Normative Decision Theory

One final theory we will look at is Vroom and Yetton’s Normative Decision Theory. This approach is intended to determine the optimum amount of time and group input that should be committed to a decision. A leader has several options available to him in this regard:

He can make a decision entirely by himself.
He can use information from team members to make decisions.
He can consult team members individually and ask their advice before deciding.
He can consult team members as a group before making a decision.
He can consult the team as a group and allow the team to make the decision.

Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton provide a model that helps leaders decide when to use each approach. The model walks leaders through a series of questions about the decision to be made, and the answers will lead the decision-maker to the suggested approach. The questions focus on a few key factors:

Is decision quality highly important?
Does the leader have sufficient information to make the decision?
Is it highly important for team members to accept the decision?
Are the team members likely to accept the leader’s decision if he makes it individually? What if he makes it with their consultation?
Do the team members’ goals match those of the leader and organization?
Is the problem structured and easily analyzed?
Do team members have high levels of expertise in the matter to be decided?
Do team members have high levels of competence in working together?

Leaders are challenged to make good decisions and decide who decides. At times, the best choice is to involve others in the decision.

Situation theories of leadership. Source text https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-principlesmanagement/chapter/situational-theories-of-leadership/

Situational Theories of Leadership. Authored by: Aaron Spencer and Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Image: Levels of Follower Maturity. Authored by: Aaron Spencer and Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Image: Leadership Approaches and Employee Maturity. Authored by: Aaron Spencer and Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

Diversity and Inclusion

smm1123 — Fri, 17 May 2019 15:09:18 +0000

Diversity and Inclusion in the Workforce

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Explain the benefits of employee diversity in the workplace
Discuss the challenges presented by workplace diversity

Diversity is not simply a box to be checked; it is an approach to business that unites ethical management and high performance. Business leaders in the global economy recognize the benefits of a diverse workforce and see it as an organizational strength, not as a mere slogan or a form of regulatory compliance with the law. They recognize that diversity can enhance performance and drive innovation; conversely, adhering to the traditional business practices of the past can cost them, talented employees and loyal customers.

A global management consulting firm McKinsey & Company study indicates that businesses with gender and ethnic diversity outperform others. According to Mike Dillon, chief diversity and inclusion officer for PwC in San Francisco, “attracting, retaining, and developing a diverse group of professionals stirs innovation and drives growth.”

Living this goal means recruiting, hiring, and training talent from a broad demographic spectrum and including all employees in every aspect of the organization.

Workplace Diversity

The twenty-first-century workplace features much greater diversity than was expected a few generations ago. Individuals who might once have faced employment challenges because of religious beliefs, ability differences, or sexual orientation now regularly join their peers in interview pools and on the job. Each may bring a new outlook and different information; employees can no longer assume that their coworkers think the same way they do. This pushes them to question their assumptions, expand their understanding, and appreciate alternate viewpoints. The result is more creative ideas, approaches, and solutions. Thus, diversity may also enhance corporate decision-making.

Communicating with those who differ may require us to make an extra effort and even change our viewpoint. Still, it leads to better collaboration and more favorable outcomes overall. David Rock, director of the Neuro-Leadership Institute in New York City, says diverse coworkers “challenge their own and others’ thinking.”

According to the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM), organizational diversity now includes more than just racial, gender, and religious differences. It also encompasses different thinking styles and personality types, as well as other factors such as physical and cognitive abilities and sexual orientation, all of which influence the way people perceive the world. “Finding the right mix of individuals to work on teams, and creating the conditions in which they can excel, are key business goals for today’s leaders, given that collaboration has become a paradigm of the twenty-first-century workplace,” according to an SHRM article.

Attracting workers who are not all alike is an essential first step in achieving greater diversity. However, managers cannot stop there. Their goals must also encompass all employees' inclusion or engagement in the corporate culture. “The far bigger challenge is how people interact with each other once they’re on the job,” says Howard J. Ross, founder, and chief learning officer at Cook Ross, a consulting firm specializing in diversity. “Diversity is being invited to the party; inclusion is being asked to dance. Diversity is about the ingredients, the mix of people and perspectives. Inclusion is about the container—the place that allows employees to feel they belong, both accepted and different.”

Workplace diversity is not a new policy idea; its origins date back to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (CRA). Census figures show that women comprised less than 29 percent of the civilian workforce when Congress passed Title VII of the CRA prohibiting workplace discrimination. After the law's passage, gender diversity in the workplace expanded significantly. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the percentage of women in the labor force increased from 48 percent in 1977 to 60 percent in 1999. Over the last five years, the percentage has held relatively steady at 57 percent. Over the past forty years, the total number of women in the labor force has risen from 41 million in 1977 to 71 million in 2017.

The BLS projects that the number of women in the U.S. labor force will reach 92 million in 2050 (an increase that far outstrips population growth).

The statistical data show a similar trend for African American, Asian American, and Hispanic workers (Figure). Just before the passage of the CRA in 1964, the percentages of minorities in the official on-the-books workforce were relatively small compared with their representation in the total population. In 1966, Asians accounted for just 0.5 percent of private-sector employment, with Hispanics at 2.5 percent and African Americans at 8.2 percent.

However, Hispanic employment numbers have significantly increased since the CRA became law; they are expected to double from 15 percent in 2010 to 30 percent of the labor force in 2050. Similarly, Asian Americans are projected to increase their share from 5 to 8 percent between 2010 and 2050.

There is a distinct contrast in workforce demographics between 2010 and projected numbers for 2050. (credit: attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)

Much more progress remains to be made, however. For example, many people think of the technology sector as the workplace of open-minded millennials. Yet Google, as one example of a large and successful company, revealed in its latest diversity statistics that its progress toward a more inclusive workforce might be steady, but it is very slow. Men still account for the great majority of employees at the corporation; only about 30 percent are women, and women fill fewer than 20 percent of Google’s technical roles (Figure). The company has shown a similar lack of gender diversity in leadership roles, where women hold fewer than 25 percent of positions. Despite modest progress, an ocean-sized gap remains to be narrowed. Regarding ethnicity, approximately 56 percent of Google employees are white. About 35 percent are Asian, 3.5 percent are Latino, and 2.4 percent are black, and of the company’s management and leadership roles, 68 percent are held by whites.

Google is emblematic of the technology sector, and this graphic shows just how far from equality and diversity the industry remains. (credit: attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)

Google is not alone in coming up short on diversity. Recruiting and hiring a diverse workforce has been challenging for most major technology companies, including Facebook, Apple, and Yahoo (now owned by Verizon); all have reported gender and ethnic shortfalls in their workforces.

The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) has made available 2014 data comparing the participation of women and minorities in the high-technology sector with their participation in U.S. private-sector employment overall, and the results show the technology sector still lags.

Compared with all private-sector industries, the high-technology industry employs a larger share of whites (68.5%), Asian Americans (14%), and men (64%), and a smaller share of African Americans (7.4%), Latinos (8%), and women (36%). Whites also represent a much higher share of those in the executive category (83.3%), whereas other groups hold a significantly lower share, including African Americans (2%), Latinos (3.1%), and Asian Americans (10.6%). In addition, perhaps not surprisingly, 80 percent of executives are men, and only 20 percent are women. This compares negatively with all other private-sector industries, where 70 percent of executives are men and 30 percent are women.

Technology companies are generally not trying to hide the problem. Many have publicly released diversity statistics since 2014 and have been vocal about their intentions to close diversity gaps. Over thirty technology companies, including Intel, Spotify, Lyft, Airbnb, and Pinterest, signed a written pledge to increase workforce diversity and inclusion. Google pledged to spend more than $100 million to address diversity issues.

Diversity and inclusion are positive steps for business organizations, and despite their sometimes slow pace, the majority are moving in the right direction. Diversity strengthens the company’s internal relationships with employees and improves employee morale and its external relationships with customer groups. Communication, a core value of most successful businesses, becomes more effective with a diverse workforce. Performance improves for multiple reasons, not the least of which is that acknowledging diversity and respecting differences is ethical.

Adding Value through Diversity

Diversity need not be a financial drag on a company, measured as a cost of compliance with no return on the investment. A recent McKinsey & Company study concluded that companies that adopt diversity policies do well financially, realizing what is sometimes called a diversity dividend. The study results demonstrated a statistically significant relationship between better financial performance from companies with a more diverse leadership team, as indicated in (Figure). Companies in the top 25 percent regarding gender diversity were 15 percent more likely to post financial returns above their industry median in the United States. Likewise, companies in the top 25 percent of racial and/or ethnic diversity were 35 percent more likely to show returns exceeding their respective industry median.

Companies with gender and ethnic diversity generally outperform those without it. (credit: attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)

These results demonstrate a positive correlation between diversity and performance, rebutting any claim that affirmative action and other such programs are social engineerings, constituting a financial drag on earnings. The results reveal a negative correlation between performance and lack of diversity, with companies in the bottom 25 percent for gender and ethnicity or race proving to be statistically less likely to achieve above-average financial returns than the average companies. Non-diverse companies were not leaders in performance indicators. Positive correlations do not equal causation; more significant gender and ethnic diversity do not automatically translate into profit. Instead, as this chapter shows, they enhance creativity and decision-making, employee satisfaction, an ethical work environment, and customer goodwill, all of which, in turn, improve operations and boost performance.

Diversity is not a concept that matters only for the rank-and-file workforce; it makes a difference at all levels of an organization. The McKinsey & Company study, which examined twenty thousand firms in ninety countries, also found that companies in the top 25 percent for executive and/or board diversity had returns on equity more than 50 percent higher than those that ranked in the lowest 25 percent. Companies with a higher percentage of female executives tended to be more profitable.

Achieving equal representation in employment based on demographic data is ethical because it represents the essential American ideal of equal opportunity for all. It is a basic assumption of an egalitarian society that all have the same chance without being hindered by immutable characteristics. However, there are also directly relevant business reasons to do it. As we saw earlier in this chapter, more diverse companies perform better, but why? The reasons are intriguing and complex. Among them is that diversity improves a company’s chances of attracting top talent and that considering all points of view may lead to better decision-making. Diversity also improves customer experience and employee satisfaction.

To achieve improved results, companies need to expand their definition of diversity beyond race and gender. For example, differences in age, experience, and country of residence may result in a more refined global mindset and cultural fluency, which can help companies succeed in international business. A salesperson may know the language of customers or potential customers from a specific region or country, for example, or a customer service representative may understand the norms of another culture. Diverse product-development teams can grasp what a group of customers may want that is not currently offered.

Resorting to the same approaches repeatedly will not likely result in breakthrough solutions. Diversity, however, provides usefully divergent perspectives on the business challenges companies face. New ideas help solve old problems—another way diversity positively contributes to the bottom line.

The Challenges of a Diverse Workforce

Diversity is not always an instant success; it can sometimes introduce workplace tensions and lead to significant challenges for a business. Some employees simply are slow to come around to a greater appreciation of the value of diversity because they may never have considered this perspective before. Others may be prejudiced and consequently attempt to undermine the success of diversity initiatives in general. In 2017, for example, a senior software engineer’s memo criticizing Google’s diversity initiatives was leaked, creating significant protests on social media and adverse publicity in national news outlets.

The memo asserted “biological causes” and “men’s higher drive for status” to account for women’s unequal representation in Google’s technology departments and leadership. Google’s response was quick. The engineer was fired, and statements were released emphasizing the company’s commitment to diversity.

Although Google was applauded for its quick response, some argued that an employee should be free to express personal opinions without punishment (even though there is no right to free speech while at work in the private sector).

In the latest development, the fired engineer and a coworker filed a class-action lawsuit against Google on behalf of three specific groups of employees who claim Google has discriminated against them: whites, conservatives, and men.

This is not just the standard “reverse discrimination” lawsuit; it goes to the heart of the culture of diversity and one of its most significant challenges for management—the backlash against change.

In February 2018, the National Labor Relations Board ruled that Google’s termination of the engineer did not violate federal labor law and that Google had discharged the employee only for inappropriate but unprotected conduct or speech that demeaned women and had no relationship to any terms of employment. Although this ruling settles the administrative labor law aspect of the case, it does not affect the private wrongful termination lawsuit filed by the engineer, which is still proceeding.

Yet other employees are resistant to change in whatever form it takes. As inclusion initiatives and considerations of diversity become more prominent in employment practices, wise leaders should be prepared to fully explain the advantages to the company of greater diversity in the workforce and make the appropriate accommodations to support it. Accommodations can take various forms. For example, if you hire more women, should you change how you run meetings so everyone can be heard? Have you recognized that women returning to work after childrearing may bring improved skills such as time management or working well under pressure? Should you set aside a prayer room if hiring more people of different faiths? Should you give out tickets to football games as incentives? Or build team spirit with trips to a local bar? Your managers may need to accept that these initiatives may not suit everyone. Adherents of some faiths may abstain from alcohol, and some people prefer cultural events to sports. Many might welcome a menu of perquisites (“perks”) from which to choose, which will not necessarily be the ones valued in the past. Mentoring new and diverse peers can help erase bias and overcome preconceptions about others. However, all levels of a company must be engaged in achieving diversity, and all must work together to overcome resistance.

Summary

A diverse workforce yields many positive outcomes for a company. Access to a deep talent pool, positive customer experiences, and firm performance are all documented positives. Diversity may also bring some initial challenges, and some employees can be reluctant to see its advantages. Still, committed managers can deal with these obstacles effectively and make diversity a success through inclusion.

Endnotes

1Novid Parsi, “Workplace Diversity and Inclusion Gets Innovative,” Society for Human Resource Management, January 16, 2017. https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/news/hr-magazine/0217/pages/disrupting-diversity-in-the-workplace.aspx.
2Novid Parsi, “Workplace Diversity and Inclusion Gets Innovative,” Society for Human Resource Management, January 16, 2017. https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/news/hr-magazine/0217/pages/disrupting-diversity-in-the-workplace.aspx.
3Novid Parsi, “Workplace Diversity and Inclusion Gets Innovative,” Society for Human Resource Management, January 16, 2017. https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/news/hr-magazine/0217/pages/disrupting-diversity-in-the-workplace.aspx.
4Novid Parsi, “Workplace Diversity and Inclusion Gets Innovative,” Society for Human Resource Management, January 16, 2017. https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/news/hr-magazine/0217/pages/disrupting-diversity-in-the-workplace.aspx.
5“Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey. Household Data Annual Averages. 2. Employment Status of the Civilian Noninstitutional Population 16 Years and Over by Sex, 1977 to date,” U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat02.htm (accessed July 22, 2018).
6“Indicators (2013),” U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/statistics/employment/jobpat-eeo1/2013_indicators.cfm (accessed January 10, 2018).
7Google, https://diversity.google/annual-report/# (accessed July 10, 2018).
8“Diversity in High Tech,” U.S. EEOC. https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/statistics/reports/hightech/ (accessed January 12, 2018).
9Lisa Eadicicco, “Google’s Diversity Efforts Still Have a Long Way to Go,” Time, July 1, 2016. http://time.com/4391031/google-diversity-statistics-2016/.
10Pubali Neogy, “Diversity in Workplace Can Be a Game Changer,” Yahoo India Finance, June 18, 2018. Neogy states that greater diversity in the workplace fosters “creativity and innovation,” “opens global opportunities” for the firm, “fosters adaptability and better working culture,” and generally “improves companies’ bottom lines.” https://in.finance.yahoo.com/news/diversity-workplace-can-game-changer-heres-183319670.html.
11Vivian Hunt, Dennis Layton, and Sara Prince, “Why Diversity Matters,” McKinsey & Company, January 2015. https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/organization/our-insights/why-diversity-matters.
12Marcus Noland, Tyler Moran, and Barbara Kotschwar, “Is Gender Diversity Profitable? Evidence from a Global Survey,” Working Paper 16-3, Peterson Institute for International Economics, February 2016. https://piie.com/publications/working-papers/gender-diversity-profitable-evidence-global-survey.
13Daisuke Wakabayashi, “Contentious Memo Strikes Nerve inside Google and Out,” New York Times, August 8, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/08/technology/google-engineer-fired-gender-memo.html.
14Bill Chappell and Laura Sydell, “Google Reportedly Fires Employee Who Slammed Diversity Efforts,” National Public Radio, August 7, 2017. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/08/07/542020041/google-grapples-with-fallout-after-employee-slams-diversity-efforts.
15Sara Ashley O’Brien, “Engineers Sue Google for Allegedly Discriminating against White Men and Conservatives,” CNN/Money, January 8, 2018. http://money.cnn.com/2018/01/08/technology/james-damore-google-lawsuit/index.html.
16Daisuke Wakabayashi, “Google Legally Fired Diversity Memo Author, Labor Agency Says,” New York Times, February 16, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/16/business/google-memo-firing.html.
17Michael Bush and Kim Peters, “How the Best Companies Do Diversity Right,” Fortune, December 5, 2016. http://fortune.com/2016/12/05/diversity-inclusion-workplaces/.
18Michael Bush and Kim Peters, “How the Best Companies Do Diversity Right,” Fortune, December 5, 2016. http://fortune.com/2016/12/05/diversity-inclusion-workplaces/.

Glossary

diversity dividend: the financial benefit of improved performance resulting from a diverse workforce

inclusion: the engagement of all employees in the corporate culture

Diversity and Inclusion in the Workforce by Rice University https://opentextbc.ca/businessethicsopenstax/chapter/diversity-and-inclusion-in-the-workforce/ Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted

Leadership and Followers: Hersey and Blanchard

smm1123 — Fri, 17 May 2019 15:09:18 +0000

Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard introduced their situational leadership theory in the 1969 Management of Organizational Behavior book. Situational leadership states that there is no ideal approach to leadership because different types of leadership are required in different contexts. The Hersey and Blanchard model explains effective leadership in terms of leadership style and follower(s) maturity.

Task Behavior and Relationship Behavior

For Hersey and Blanchard, leadership style is determined by the mix of task behavior and relationship behavior that the leader shows. Task behavior concerns the actions required of followers and how they should be conducted. Relationship behavior concerns how people interact together to achieve a goal. The various combinations of high and low task and relationship behaviors suggest four leadership roles:

S1 – Telling: The leader's role is to direct the followers' actions. The leader instructs the followers on how, what, where, and when to do a specific task. This is primarily task behavior.
S2 – Selling: The leader is still primarily concerned with directing action but now accepts communication from followers. This communication allows the followers to feel connected to the task and buy into the mission. S2 leading is still primarily task behavior, but now it includes some relationship behavior.
S3 – Participating: This role is similar to S2, except now the leader welcomes shared decision-making. Participating leadership shifts the balance toward relationship behavior and away from task behavior.
S4 – Delegating: The leader ensures that progress is being made. Decisions involve a lot of input from the followers, and the process and responsibility now lie with followers. S4 is primarily relationship behavior.

Maturity

The other fundamental concept in the Hersey and Blanchard model is the group's maturity. Group maturity describes how confident group members are in the group's ability to complete its tasks. This concept, too, is broken into four categories:

Maturity levels

In Hersey and Blanchard's model, group maturity is divided into four categories based on how able and willing the group is to complete the job.

M1: The group does not have the skills to do the job and is unwilling or unable to take responsibility. This is a very low maturity level.
M2: The group is willing to work on the job but cannot accept responsibility. Imagine a group of volunteers working on a house for Habitat for Humanity: the volunteers are willing to perform the work but probably not capable of building a house on their own.
M3: The group has experience but is not confident enough or willing to take responsibility. The main difference between M2 and M3 is that the M3 group has the skills to work effectively.
M4: The group is willing and able to work on the job. Group members have the skills, confidence, and enthusiasm necessary to take ownership of the task. This is a very high level of maturity.

Because maturity level varies based on the group and the task (for example, professional football players are an M4 group on the football field, but an M1 group if asked to play baseball), the leadership style must adapt based on the situation. Effective leadership varies not only with the person or group being influenced but also depending on the task, job, or function that needs to be accomplished. The Hersey and Blanchard model encourages leaders to be flexible and find the right style for the task and the group maturity level. The most successful leaders adapt their leadership style to the maturity of the group they are attempting to lead or influence and to that group's purpose.

Leadership and followers: Hersey and Blanchard. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/contingency-approach-71/leadership-and-followers-hersey-and-blanchard-352-4004/index.html Except where noted, content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required.

Ethical Leadership

smm1123 — Wed, 28 Aug 2019 20:06:12 +0000

While leadership is a highly researched organizational phenomenon, ethical leadership has been primarily investigated through philosophical and normative perspectives (Benevene, Dal Corso, De Carlo, Falco, Carluccio, & Vecina, 2018). Toor and Ofori (2009) claim that “empirical research on ethical leadership is scarce. Scholars have mostly discussed ethical leadership in theoretical and conceptual terms, but hardly any studies provide empirical evidence about ethical leadership” (p. 534). The seminal work of Brown, Treviño, and Harrison (2005) examined ethical leadership from a descriptive lens, expanding the domain from the traditional philosophical perspective (p. 117). Benevene et al. (2018) note that “…unlike the philosophical approach, which defines [ethical leadership] from a normative approach (that is, describing ‘What an [ethical leader] must do’),” the definition of ethical leadership proposed by Brown et al. “…adopts a descriptive approach, aimed at identifying behaviors, antecedents, and consequences of [ethical leadership]” (para. 17). Examining ethical leadership from a descriptive lens, according to Brown et al. (2005), offers a better understanding of “…what characterizes ethical leadership, and how the [construct] relates to other variables in its nomological network” (p. 117). Brown et al. (2005) offer a constitutive definition of ethical leadership, expanding on the traditional meaning of leadership. Consistent with prior research, the definition of ethical leadership devised by Brown et al. (2005) will be used to research the effects of ethical leadership and culture on employee well-being and job satisfaction. They define ethical leadership (alternatively referred to as moral leadership and ethical management) as “the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making” (Brown et al., 2005, p. 120). However, emerging literature has challenged Brown et al.’s conceptualization of ethical leadership, which argues that ethical leadership is a behavioral component that exists on a continuum of leadership styles (Kacmar, Carlson, & Harris, 2013). The conceptualization of ethical leadership is best described along two related dimensions (Brown et al., 2005; Mayer et al., 2010). The first dimension is the moral person (e.g., integrity, concern for others, justice, trustworthiness), and the second dimension is the moral leader (e.g., communicating, rewarding, punishing, emphasizing ethical standards, role modeling ethical behavior) (Mayer et al., 2010, p. 8). Hansen, Alge, Brown, Jackson, and Dunford (2013) summarize Brown et al.’s (2005) conceptualization of ethical leadership. They summarize that “as moral persons, ethical leaders are fair, principled, and genuinely concerned for their employees…[and] set, communicate, and reinforce high ethical standards” (Hansen et al., 2013, p. 438). Ethical leadership can improve employee behavior, relationships, and employee and organizational performance (Jambawo, 2018, p. 1000). However, some scholars have suggested that ethical leadership characteristics (e.g., honesty and integrity) are observable across a typology of leadership styles (Toor & Ofori, 2009). Emerging literature supports conceptualizing ethical leadership as a behavioral component rather than a leadership style. Despite consideration as a stand-alone construct, ethical leadership falls under the umbrella of positive forms of leadership (Kacmar et al., 2013, p. 582). Under the umbrella of positive leadership styles, Kacmar et al. (2013) include the following leadership styles: authentic, spiritual, and transformational (p. 582). Scholars have proposed that ethics is a component of each form of positive leadership; however, the overlapping ethics component suggests that the ethical leadership construct is embedded in different styles and occurs on a continuum (Kacmar et al., 2013, p. 582). Thus, ethical leadership as a component rather than a leadership style creates a contradiction in ethics research. The Concepts of Unethical Leadership and Unethical Behavior The antithesis of ethical leadership is a domain of leadership and ethics that is seldom studied. As the reciprocal form of ethical leadership, Brown and Mitchell (2010) define unethical leadership as “behaviors conducted, and decisions made by organizational leaders that are legal and…violate moral standards, and those that impose processes and structures that promote unethical conduct by followers” (p. 588). Discussing the outcomes of unethical leadership, Brown and Mitchell (2010) state that “unethical leader behavior costs U.S. corporations billions of dollars a year due to increased absenteeism, health care costs, lost productivity, and expended costs associated with actionable claims” (pp. 588-589). The adverse outcomes of unethical leadership underscore the urgent need for ethical leadership in the workforce. Employees will benefit from ethical leadership and organizational culture; such constructs have been linked to increased job satisfaction and occupational well-being. Ethical behavior is a form of behavior that is considered “right” as opposed to “wrong” (Kinicki & Williams, 2016, p. 78). Ethical behavior is often characterized by actions and decisions that are morally sound (e.g., honesty and integrity). In contrast, unethical behavior usually depicts actions and decisions that are deemed immoral (e.g., manipulation and theft). However, Umphress, Bingham, and Mitchell (2010) highlight a variance of unethical behavior called unethical pro-organizational behavior (UPB), which are unethical behaviors conducted by employees to benefit the organization (p. 769) potentially. Unethical pro-organizational behavior is described as “acts that are either illegal or morally unacceptable to the larger community” (Umphress et al., 2010, p. 770). In-between ethical and unethical behavior are variances, suggesting that both behavioral constructs are multidimensional and exist on an ethical behavioral spectrum. Ralston, Egri, Furrer, Kuo, Li, and Wangenheim (2014) assert that “…behavior in organizations may be viewed as ranging from highly ethical to highly unethical, much of the organizational research has focused either on the ethical or the unethical ends of the continuum” (p. 284). Additional research is needed to create a typology of ethical and unethical behavior to uncover gaps in ethics literature. While ethical leadership and ethical behavior are associated with positive outcomes, unethical leadership, and unethical behavior negatively influence employees' attitudes and psychological well-being (Brown & Mitchell, 2010, p. 598). As reported by Sanders, Wisse, Yperen, and Rus (2018), “…leaders’ unethical behavior is associated with negative outcomes, such as employee workplace deviance, whereas leaders’ ethical behavior is related to positive outcomes, such as increased employee job satisfaction and organizational commitment” (p. 631). Umphress et al. (2010) warn that when a culture is formed, leaders must encourage “…ethical behavior by ensuring that their behavior corresponds to ethical standards and reward only ethical behavior for their employees” (p. 778). Given the apparent impact of leaders’ behavior, understanding the conditions that shape follower behavior is essential to promoting ethical behavior in the workplace. Enron and WorldCom's questionable practices and violations reflect poor, moral decision-making and unethical leadership. Corporate executives and leaders who lack ethical behavior violate fiduciary and social responsibilities. The absence of oversight and a lack of ethical values are not conducive to prosperous societies, thriving businesses, and functional social institutions. While instrumental in minimizing unethical conduct, legislative action is not an end-all solution; corporate leaders must exude ethical leadership and foster an ethical culture with an ethics and compliance program, ultimately creating an “ethical organization” or “ethical climate.” Ethical climate, the moral atmosphere of the work environment, is “…the institutionalized organizational practices and procedures that deﬁne what is considered right or wrong within the organization” (Parboteeah & Kapp, 2008, p. 517). Given the mounting scrutiny placed on the actions and conduct of leaders and managers, organizations can diminish the consequences of immorality and realize the value of ethical leadership and ethical organizational culture, namely an elevation of well-being and satisfaction in the workplace. Ethical leadership engenders employees to reciprocate fair and honest treatment by leaders and managers through desired attitudes and behaviors (Moon & Jung, 2018, p. 269). Conversely, employees’ perception of unethical behavior could elicit responses of negative attitudes and counterproductive work behaviors toward the managers and organization (Moon & Jung, 2018, p. 269). A leader who offers no ethical direction to employees can invite unethical behavior such as manipulation, dishonesty, and conflicts of interest (Ferrell et al., 2013, p. 31). Bedi et al. (2016) propose that ethical leadership is positively associated with followers' psychological well-being because of the critical role leaders play in shaping the work experience of followers (p. 521). Therefore, a leader’s behavior and an organization’s culture play a significant role in supporting ethical behavior (McShane & Von Glinow, 2013, p. 59). Given the ties between ethical leadership and culture to occupational well-being and job satisfaction, corporate leaders must recognize the value of promoting ethicality and positive ethical behavior in the workplace (Perez, 2018, p. 40). By adhering to ethical standards, leaders and managers can role-model the ethical conduct employees are more likely to follow (McShane & Von Glinow, 2013, p. 54). Bedi et al. (2016) state that “Leaders as role models motivate ethical behavior by demonstrating the type of actions they want to promote and reward” (p. 519). Ethical leaders express their positive characteristics and influence their employees by actively managing and modeling ethical conduct (Mayer et al., 2010, p. 8). According to Mayer et al. (2010), “Leaders set the ethical tone for an organization by enacting practices, policies, and procedures that help facilitate the display of ethical behavior and reduce the likelihood of misconduct” (p. 8). Employees are more likely to perceive an ethical organizational environment when ethical leaders signal that doing the right thing is expected, encouraged, and valued (Mayer et al., 2010, p. 8). Through positive role-modeling, interpersonal influence, and disseminating messages about ethical conduct, ethical leaders can develop an ethical organizational culture, thereby creating an ethical climate that can facilitate the development of ethical employees (Toor & Ofori, 2009, p. 544). References Bedi, A., Alpaslan, C. M., & Green, S. (2016). A meta-analytic review of ethical leadership outcomes and moderators. Journal of Business Ethics, (3), 517. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2625-1 Benevene, P., Dal Corso, L., De Carlo, A., Falco, A., Carluccio, F., & Vecina, M. L. (2018). Ethical leadership as an antecedent of job satisfaction, affective organizational commitment and intention to stay among volunteers of non-profit organizations. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2069. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02069 Brown, M. E., & Mitchell, M. S. (2010). Ethical and unethical leadership: Exploring new avenues for future research. 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Journal of Business Ethics, 95, 7–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0794-0 McShane, S. L., & Von Glinow, M. A. (2013). Organizational behavior. Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin. Moon, K., & Jung, C. (2018). Management representativeness, ethical leadership, and employee job satisfaction in the U.S. federal government. Public Personnel Management, 47(3), 265–286. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091026018767480 Parboteeah, K. P., & Kapp, E. A. (2008). Ethical climates and workplace safety behaviors: An empirical investigation. Journal of Business Ethics, 80(3), 515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-007-9452-y Perez, J. (2018). The value of ethical leadership. IABS Journal, 1(3), 38–49. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bsu&AN=131274391&site=eds-live Ralston, D., Egri, C., Furrer, O., Kuo, M.-H., Li, Y., Wangenheim, F.,…Weber, M. (2014). Societal-level versus individual-level predictions of ethical behavior: A 48-society study of collectivism and individualism. Journal of Business Ethics (Vol. 122, pp. 283–306). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1744-9 Sanders, S., Wisse, B., Yperen, N. W., & Rus, D. (2018). On ethically solvent leaders: The roles of pride and moral identity in predicting leader ethical behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, (3), 631. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3180-0 Toor, S.-R., & Ofori, G. (2009). Ethical leadership: Examining the relationships with full range leadership model, employee outcomes, and organizational culture. Journal of Business Ethics, 90(4), 533–547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0059-3

Effects of Ethical Leadership and Ethical Culture: Relationship to Well-Being and Satisfaction. By Bryd, B. (2019). Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under: CC BY-Attribution with attribution required.

Open Education References

smm1123 — Fri, 17 May 2019 15:09:18 +0000

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Retrieved from journalofleadershiped.org/attachments/article/457/LammK_554.pdf Caruso, D., & Salovey, P. (2004). The Emotionally Intelligent Manager. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Chen, H., Beck, S., and Amos, L. (2005). Leadership styles and nursing faculty job satisfaction in Taiwan. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 37, 374–380. Crossref Cherry, K. (2018). How psychologists evaluate intelligence. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/theories-of-intelligence-2795035 Developing Leadership Skills. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/developing-leadership-skills-74/developing-leadership-skills-365-3463/index.htmlContent and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required. Diversity and Inclusion in the workforce. Rice University. https://opentextbc.ca/businessethicsopenstax/chapter/diversity-and-inclusion-in-the-workforce/ Diversity and Inclusion in the Workforce by Rice University is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Donnelly, G. (June 2017). “Google’s 2017 diversity report shows progress hiring women, little changes for minority workers.” Fortune, June 29, 2017 El-Attrash, F. (2017). How to Embrace Diversity with Empathy. Retrieved from https://www.govloop.com/embrace-diversity-empathy/ Four Theories of Leadership. Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/defining-leadership-68/four-theories-of-leadership-344-7580/index.html Freudenthaler, H. H., & Neubauer, A. C. (2007). Measuring emotional management abilities: Further evidence of the importance to distinguish between typical and maximum performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(8), 1561-1572. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.10.031 Gassam, J. (2018). Empathy: The Key To A Diverse And Inclusive Workplace. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/janicegassam/2018/09/25/empathy-the-key-to-a-diverse-and-inclusive-workplace/#7bed1a0c7097 Goleman, D. (2016). Can you read the room? Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/can-you-read-room-social-awareness-work-daniel-goleman Goleman, D. (2018). Diversity Emotional Intelligence = More Success. Retrieved from https://www.kornferry.com/institute/diversity-emotional-intelligence-leadership Goleman, D. (2015). How emotionally intelligent are you? Retrieved from http://www.danielgoleman.info/daniel-goleman-how-emotionally-intelligent-are-you/ Goleman, D. (2000). Leadership that Gets Results. Harvard business review, 78(2), 4-17. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Dell. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R. E., & McKee, A. (2002). Primal leadership: Learning to lead with emotional intelligence. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Green, R. (n.d.). The Emotional Intelligence Institute Perth, Australia. Retrieved from http://www.theeiinstitute.com/what-is-emotional-intelligence/15-high-emotional-intelligence-self-awareness.html Grewal, D. & Salovey, P. (2005). The science of emotional intelligence. Retrieved from http://ei.yale.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2013/11/pub68_SaloveyGrewal2005_scienceofEI.pdf Hanscom, J. (2019). How does Emotional Intelligence Create a Culture that Promotes Diversity and Inclusion in the Workplace? CC BY: Attribution with attribution required. Hunt, V., Layton, D. Prince. S. (Feb 2015). Why diversity matters. Jewett-Geragosian. R. (2018) Styles and Traits theory. Forum post. Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required. Karafyllis, N. C. & Ulshofer, G. (2008). Sexualized brains: Scientific modeling of emotional intelligence from a cultural perspective. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Keegan, A. E., and Den Hartog, D. N. (2004). Transformational leadership in a project-based environment: a comparative study of the leadership styles of project managers and line managers. International journal of project management, 22(8), 609-617. Latham, J. R. (2014). Leadership for Quality and Innovation: Challenges, Theories, and a Framework for Future Research. Quality Management Journal, 21(1), 11-15. Leadership. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/defining-leadership-68/leadership-337-1044/index.html Except where noted, content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required. Leadership and followers Hersey and Blanchard. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/contingency-approach-71/leadership-and-followers-hersey-and-blanchard-352-4004/index.html Except where noted, content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required. Leadership and task follower characteristics. Content source: http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/contingency-approach-71/leadership-and-task-follower-characteristics-house-353-4005/index.html Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required. A Leader's Influence. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/defining-leadership-68/a-leader-s-influence-340-1045/index.html Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required. A Leader's Vision. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/defining-leadership-68/a-leader-s-vision-341-880/index.htmlContent and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required. Leadership Styles. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/alamo-sociology/chapter/reading-leadership-styles/ License CC:BY: Attribution http://cnx.org/contents/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e Management versus leadership. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/defining-leadership-68/management-versus-leadership-338-3993/index.html Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required. Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R. & Salovey, P. (2016). The ability model of emotional intelligence: Principles and updates. Emotion Review,8(4), 290-300. doi:10.1177/1754073916639667 Mayer, J.D. & Salovey, P. (1997a). Emotional development and emotional intelligence. New York: Basic Books. Mayer, J. D. & Salovey, P. (1997b). The four-branch model of emotional intelligence. Retrieved from http://jackiewhiting.net/Psychology/LearnIntell/EmoIntell.htm Morton, W. (2012). Everything you need to know about emotional intelligence & leadership. Retrieved from eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzUyOTc1M19fQU41?sid=d35c96dc-db9d-4116-b60e9264a7f647a@sessionmgr4009&vid=2&format=EB&ppid=pp_12 Mumford, M., Zaccaro, S. J., Johnson, J. F., Diana, M., Gilbert, J. A. and Threlfall, K. (2000). Patterns of leader characteristics: Implications for performance and development. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 115–133. Northouse, P. G. (2013). Leadership theory and practice. (Sixth Edition). Los Angeles: SAGE. Raelin, J. A. (2003). Creating leaderful organizations: How to bring out leadership in everyone. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Rohm Jr., F. W., & Osula, B. (2013). Scouting and Servant Leadership in Cross-Cultural Perspective: An Exploratory Study. Journal of Virtues & Leadership, 3(1), 26. Salovey, P., Brackett, M. A., & Mayer, J. D. (2007). Emotional intelligence: Key readings on the Mayer and Salovey model. Port Chester, NY: Dude Pub. Skills of a Retail Manager. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-retailmanagement/chapter/skills-of-a-retail-manager/ From: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/additional-roles-and-skills-of-managers/. Sources of Power. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/defining-leadership-68/sources-of-power-339-7332/index.html Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required. Spenser, A. Situational Theories of Leadership. Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Spenser, A. Levels of Follower Maturity. Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Spenser, A. Leadership Approaches and Employee Maturity. Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Spenser. A. What is leadership? Lumens. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-principlesofmanagement/chapter/what-is-leadership/Except where noted, content and user contributions on this site are licensed under : CC BY: Attribution with attribution required. The Trait Theory Approach. http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/trait-approach-69/the-trait-theory-approach-345-3943/index.html Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 with attribution required.Toosi, M. (October 2012). Projections of the labor force to 2050. Monthly Labor Review. Data from U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics University of Florida Training and Organizational Development, Office of Human Resource Services. (n.d.). Social competency and relationship management. Retrieved from http://training.hr.ufl.edu/resources/LeadershipToolkit/job_aids/SocialCompetencyandRelationshipManagement.pdf Volckmann, R. (2002). Self-management: Integral leadership. Retrieved from http://integralleadershipreview.com/5968-feature-article-self-management-integral-leadership-eleventh-in-a-series/ Yukl, G., Gordon, A. & Taber, T. (2002). A hierarchical taxonomy of leadership behavior: Integrating a half century of behavior research. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 9(1), 15-32. doi: 10.1177/107179190200900102 Wilcox, L. (2016). Emotional intelligence is no soft skill. Harvard Professional Development, Harvard DCE. Retrieved from https://www.extension.harvard.edu/professional-development/blog/emotional-intelligence-no-soft-skill

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Book Information

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Introduction

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This book was created for LD820 Cultivating your Leadership Capabilities. This course is the first course in the MS in Leadership Program at Granite State College and is a requirement of the MS in Nursing Program. This book is licensed under CY BY-SA 4.0 The book was created using CY BY-SA 4.0 materials and has been attributed. Over time, students will add their own CY BY-SA 4.0 work to the book.

Bijoux Bahati wrote Inclusive Leadership.
Joanna Bailey contributed to the chapter Leaderful Women.
Chad Bascatow contributed to Defining your Leadership Skills chapter.
Emily Bolduc-Fabian contributed to chapter Leaderful Women.
Brandon Bryd wrote the Ethical Leadership chapter.
Rebecca Geragosian has supplied a diagram to the Skills, Traits, and Contingency Theory chapter.
Jaimee Hanscom wrote the Emotional Intelligence chapter.
Vanessa Koch contributed the chapter Leaderful Women.
David McKillop, Jr. wrote Gender and the Role it Plays in Management and Leadership located in the Leadership vs. Management Chapter.
Jody Oliver contributed to the chapter Leaderful Women.
Melissa Plante wrote the Chapter Vulnerability in Leadership
Kyle Somma contributed to the Leaderful Women chapter.
Ty Gioacchini wrote Leadership Styles of Music Ensemble Conductors

These works have been attributed in their respective sections. Over time, the College plans to add other work created by students.

Cover photo credit: "Untitled" by Girish Gopi via Flickr.com - Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic (CC BY-SA 2.0)

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If you prefer to download any of the e-book files for use on your devices or computer, we recommend using one of the following applications below so that you can use the note taking features as you read.

Mac: iBooks [ USE THE EPUB FILE ]. If you are using a Mac running one of the most recent operating systems (Mac OS X Mavericks or later), you already have the iBooks application in your Applications folder. More about iBooks can be found on Apple's website.

Windows: A mazon Kindle for PC [ USE THE MOBI FILE ].

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Computers and print Use the regular PDF for your computer. If you want to print out the textbook onto hardcopy paper, use the PDF-Print version.

How to use an e-book for this course

Using an e-book for learning is similar to studying from a traditional paper textbook but with some extra capabilities. Using an e-book reader, you can select any text in the e-book and add an annotation to it to capture your immediate impressions of the readings and media. You can do a search within the e-book to find things quickly. You can keep the e-book for future reference in your scholarly or professional work.

Main Body

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Leaderful Women

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Introduction

By Dr. Kathy DesRoches Joe Raelin’s book, Creating Leaderful Organizations, is the cornerstone of the MS in Leadership Program at The College of Professional Studies. Leaderful is a term coined by Raelin. One faculty member in the Leadership program described Raelin as a servant leader. Servant leadership is a more widely known leadership style than Leaderful. Raelin’s book aptly captures four elements of leaderful; however, when we look at the text in the contemporary sense, one can’t help but notice the lack of female examples. This chapter aims to provide examples of female leadership in Raelin’s work. One barrier to women in leadership is that “women’s leadership is about redefinition, while men’s leadership has been about maintaining the status quo” (Tarr-Whelan, 2009, p. 9). Women’s approach to leadership is often seen through the lens of male leadership, as men are traditionally viewed as leaders. Knowing that leadership is considered a male quality, the following information from Mendez & Busenbark is engaging. "Recent findings bring attention to the role of context in leadership gender inequalities. Whereas effective leaders are often characterized in masculine terms, women leaders appear to be appointed more often than men to leadership positions when in situations of crisis, a phenomenon that has been termed the glass cliff" (Mendez & Busenbark, 2015, p. 4). This is explained by the notion that women perform better under pressure and are more willing to “take one for the team” (Mendez & Busenbark, 2015, p. 4). This chapter attempts to share examples of women as leaders without comparison to men. “Research consistently shows that when women lead side by side with men…more skill sets are used, and more out-of-the-box thinking occurs from both genders” (Tarr-Whelan, 2009, p. xiii). This chapter will demonstrate the leaderful approach female leaders bring to the workplace.

Kathy L. DesRoches, Ed.D.

Status of Women in Leadership By Kyle Somma Women make up over 50 percent of the United States population (United States Census Bureau, 2018); however, it was not until 240 years after the signing of the Declaration of Independence that this country had the first female to win a presidential party nomination (Collinson, 2016). Ninety-four years after women won the right to vote in 1920, the 19th Amendment was signed (Henderson, 2016). Hillary Clinton said of her campaign, "This campaign is about making sure there are no ceilings, no limits on any of us, and this is our moment to come together" (Henderson, 2016). However, years after her historic nomination, gender inequalities remain a barrier for women in leadership positions in the United States. According to Catalyst, women make up 44.7 percent of the overall Standard & Poor’s 500 labor force in the United States (2019). Within that labor force, only 36.9 percent of women are first or mid-level officials and managers, and 26.5 percent are executive- and senior-level officials and managers (Catalyst, 2019). Additionally, only 21.2 percent of board seats are held by women, and women make up only five percent of CEOs (Catalyst, 2019). There are a significant number of studies regarding gender inequality and the ways that women are employed. In a 2018 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center, 44 percent of men surveyed and 62 percent of women surveyed believed that “gender discrimination is a major reason why there aren’t more women in top executive business positions” (Women and Leadership 2018, 2018, p. 3). Maybe this is due to the male leadership lens. A 2013 Women’s Media Center study theorized that women would take until 2085 to reach equality with men in key leadership roles in the United States (Klos, 2013, p. 4). There are persistent gender disparities in leadership careers that rank among the most significant influencers in American society. Despite these disparities, Pew Research Center found that most Americans want more women in leadership positions (2018, p. 17). Most people surveyed believe there should be equal numbers of women in leadership positions as men (Pew Research Center, 2018, p. 19). Yet in that same study, Americans are divided on whether there will ever be gender parity in corporate leadership positions (Pew Research Center, 2018, p. 27). The Pew Research Center study questioned the qualities and competencies required for effective leadership. Women scored higher than males in compassion, empathy, compromise, honesty, ethics, serving as role models for children, maintaining a tone of civility and respect, and standing up for their values (Pew Research Center, 2018, p. 12). These traits are critical components in leaderful leadership practice. Leaderful leadership is a transformative approach to leadership that abolishes the conventional tenants of leadership and replaces them with leadership that is concurrent, collective, collaborative, and compassionate (Raelin, 2003, p.14). In a 1999 study of corruption and women in government, the researchers concluded, “higher rates of female participation in government are associated with lower levels of corruption” (Dollar, Fisman, & Gatti, 1999, p. 6). Globally women’s economic participation and control over productive assets has been shown to speed up development, assist in overcoming poverty, reduce inequalities, and improve the health and education of children (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2010, p. 5). Additionally, women invest more earnings into their communities (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2010, p. 5) than men. Increasing the participation of women in leadership positions will have a direct effect on policy as well as the economy. Raelin states, “Leadership as we know it has to change if we are to prosper in our twenty–first century organizations and communities” (2003, p. 241). Women are breaking through the glass ceiling and transforming the traditional idea of a leader. The historically masculine terms associated with a leader, such as charismatic, selfish, strong-willed, and competitive, are replaced with the leaderful (feminine traits) qualities of empathy, honesty, and compassion.

Kyle M. Somma Status of Women in Leadership, June 2019

Women in Concurrent Leadership Emily Bolduc-Fabian Concurrent leadership is the foundation of a ‘leaderful practice.’ Concurrent leadership suggests the idea of not one individual as a leader but all team members acting leaderful (Raelin, 2003). Concurrent leaders share their powers, allowing one another to each act as a leader (Raelin, 2003). One may also think of this as a shared leadership model. Each team member has their responsibility and is more proficient in their area of expertise than their teammate, who handles a separate function (Raelin, 2003). This, in return, governs power situationally to individuals within their job duties (Raelin, 2003). Given the diverse operations, there is not one leader who performs various operations but multiple leaders who function separately and come together to foster a powerful concurrent team (Raelin, 2003). Women leaders have come a long way, from the early 1900s when they could not vote to the millennial generation that strives for diversity and equality in the workplace (O'Connor, 2010). Women have had to overcome multiple obstacles to be accepted within the workforce (O'Connor, 2010). As stated in a Forbes article on women supporting other women in the workforce, women who attempt to rise into leadership face cultural and systemic hurdles that make it harder for them to advance, sometimes due to unconscious bias (Zalis, 2019). This is particularly true given that the male leadership model has been the default for centuries (or the lens of leadership). Once biases, stereotypes, and preconceptions of women are put aside, others see that women have positively contributed to any team. Women bring different skills and traits to men, creating a more functional concurrent leadership than men alone (O'Connor, 2010). In concurrent leadership, nominal leaders struggle with sharing leadership within the team (Raelin, 2003). This model can be a threat to the leaders in that individual members may be seen to have more substantial leadership qualities than the nominal leader (Raelin, 2003). This factor ties in with the development of women leaders, as not so long ago, the idea of women as equal leaders to men was not acceptable to much of the population. “Most women share critical values and visions that, on balance, diverged from those of me…they include a preference for collaboration” (Tarr-Whelan, 2009, p. 6). As written earlier, women are asked to lead during difficult times. Though this concept was not readily accepted, women thrive in their leadership role as their qualities bring a different success to leadership than the qualities we typically think of as males. Although concurrent leadership can be described as sharing power between all team members while displaying leadership simultaneously but in different roles (Raelin, 2003). The nominal leader needs to help develop the knowledge and skills of their team members (Raelin, 2003). This may take time and patience, concurrent leadership may describe the individual members as having the power of their positions, but that does not take the task load away from the nominal leader (Raelin, 2003). The nominal leader will need to step in situations help or advice is required (Raelin, 2003). Once individual members are confident on their own, the nominal leader will direct their expertise elsewhere to continue the growth of the team’s concurrent leadership (Raelin, 2003). Shared leadership depends on collaboration and teamwork, which could result in a female advantage, but this advantage is not realized (Mendez & Busenbark, 2015, p. 6). Generally speaking, women prefer to develop relationships with their followers in which their followers feel comfortable to be able to rely on their leader for advice, knowledge, and direction when needed (Boundless, n.d.). Softer tactics foster strong concurrent leadership in that women strive to ensure their team members are efficient within their positions before expecting them to act as leaders independently (Boundless, n.d.). Utilizing softer tactics to form relationships with each team member is beneficial. Brene Brown, a well-known author, storyteller, and research professor at the University of Houston, has spent the last two decades researching and teaching leadership concepts (Ramirez, 2016). Her research aims to help growing professionals advance within their careers by overcoming their fears related to courage, vulnerability, shame, and empathy (Ramirez, 2016). Through her research and teachings, she has shown herself to be a leader who strives to help others work through challenging issues while providing motivation and encouragement (Raelin, 2003). Brown practices concurrent leadership and advises leaders to “have a shared understanding of all of the elements of a team so no single person is the connective tissue” (Brown, 2018, p. 54). Sharing the understanding of the team and the needs of members and goals is concurrent leadership in its purest form. Once biases, stereotypes, and preconceptions are set aside, women will be recognized as leaders but not concerning the male model. When considering the strengths and qualities of women, we recognize their concurrent leadership style due to their softer tactics to develop relationships with their followers, which recognizes each offer's expertise and contributions (Sources of Power, n.d.). Given their unique attributes, women facilitate leadership among all team members, which allows all members to act as a leader in their roles.

Emily Bolduc-Fabian, Women in concurrent leadership, June 8, 2019

Collective leadership Joanna Bailey In this section, I will discuss three aspects of collective leadership: stewardship, leader as a learner, and meaning makers. These areas foster collective leadership and contribute to a leaderful practice. Raelin (2003) describes stewardship as a community partnership. Stewardship relies on mutual goals and a mutual purpose, where everyone is responsible for their work and can say no to any assignments, everyone is responsible for the community of work, and people are respectful and act with integrity towards other members of the group (Raelin, 2003, p117). On June 15, 2019, Joe Raelin tweeted, “Who would like to work with this #leaderful chief executive?” (Raelin J., 2019). His tweet referred to Mary Alread, the former CEO of The Committee for Gippsland in Australia, and her collective leadership style. “Aldred says leadership is changing as society demands more of organizations, and values among the workforce shift. Changing expectations mean empathy and understanding will better serve organizations and their staff” (Houego, 2019). She says, “The way I try to engage my team is much more at a level where everybody, no matter their role, is encouraged to contribute ideas” (Houego, 2019). Team sports are an example of effective stewardship: team members work collectively, and even though there are different positions within the team, if someone can score, they do. The American women’s soccer team has had significant success and was the world cup champion in 1999. At the time of this writing, they are competing in the world cup, which is being held in France this year (2019). The American team consists of 23 women, of which three are co-captains. In their match against Thailand on June 11, 2019, five players scored 13 goals, which illustrates the team's collective philosophy. While everyone has assigned playing positions, the team plays as one cohesive and collective unit. The captains are the designated leaders, but, as with any collective group, they will put aside their individual needs and title for the success of the entire team mission. One view of collective leadership is to promote learning for the entire organization by creating a secure environment where openness and vulnerability are encouraged. This leadership style has many benefits, including a team superseding their perspective and working collectively for the team's greater good, and success. Raelin also talks about the leader as a learner in collective leadership (Raelin, 2003). There is a vulnerability to leaders willing to face their lack of knowledge and the potential failure of their ideas (Raelin, 2003). However, the leader with all the answers can be detrimental to team success because of their inability to swallow their pride as they do not want to be seen as weak or uncertain. Sheryl Sandberg joined the now giant social media company Facebook in 2008 when the company was in significant debt (Rosoff, 2016). As the business and concept were new, there wasn’t a rule book, vision statement, or template to follow, so as a newly appointed leader, Sandberg was a “learner as a leader” during this innovative time. When asked what advice she would give someone in a leadership position, she responded, "Ask for feedback – and take it well. Even in leadership positions, listening to feedback and using it to improve is important. People who do this will keep learning and growing. It also builds great team trust" (Sahadi, 2018). Under Sandberg’s leadership, Facebook has seen exponential growth, with profits in the billions. The final component of collective leadership is the meaning maker. Raelin states, "To make meaning, one has to merely help the group make sense of what people do when they work together” (Raelin, 2003, p. 138). Michelle Obama is an example of a meaning-maker who put her individual needs to one side to support her husband during his presidency. With two young daughters in the White House, Michelle became a leader for mothers, giving extra meaning to the collective team. She was influential in her healthy eating for Children project because she was a role model for families (Lewis, 2018). While it may appear that Mrs. Obama has put her career aside for her husband, it was a team decision with collective leadership. There were significant benefits both during and after their tenure. Obama became a role model, continued her professional career, and was inspired to write a bestselling book about her life. Her focus may have temporarily changed during their White House years, but she brought meaning to the team dynamic. Collective leadership relies on openness irrespective of position. Across the board, team members must have a sense of security in being open and vulnerable, which includes the leader.

Joanna Bailey, Collective Leadership, June 8, 2019

Women as Collaborative Leaders Jody Oliver For decades, women have struggled to make their way into top leadership positions, but despite their barriers, they continue to attempt to level the playing field. One way to do this is by fostering a collaborative leadership style. “Collaborative leadership is characterized by shared vision and values, interdependence and shared responsibility, mutual respect, empathy and willingness to be vulnerable, ambiguity, effective communication, and synergy” (Lewis, 2018). By embracing these fundamental qualities, women can offer the benefits of their diversity. For example, a 2014 Gallup study and a 2016 Catalyst study discovered that hiring diverse employees increases revenue because of improved problem-solving and workforce achievement (Elias, 2018). Land O’ Lakes CEO Beth Ford agrees and says, “I think all diverse voices are critical. Leadership is a team sport. It’s about enabling and empowering the team to succeed” (2018, p. 4). Ford is one of 33 women Fortune 500 CEOs (Connley, 2019). Survey data from thousands of 360 evaluations revealed that women leaders outranked men in most leadership competencies, including honesty and integrity, developing others, innovation, problem-solving, and championing change (Zenger & Folkman, 2012). Women can use this information to foster a collaborative environment and one’s personal development as well as emphasize their exemplary leadership qualities. Raelin (2003) explains that collaborative leaders ensure key stakeholders are involved in cultivating and implementing organizational changes. “Hence, they become intrinsically motivated to see the change implemented and successfully implemented” (Raelin, 2003, p. 156). This is an area where women can excel by facilitating collaborative involvement during times of transition when people are experiencing high levels of stress and anxiety. Eileen Elias, M.Ed., used her forty years of leadership experience and research to collaborate with other acknowledged leaders and publish advice for emerging female leaders (2018). Their comprehensive list of recommendations includes building and sustaining a network of diverse colleagues, pursuing a mentor who exemplifies the type of leader you want to be, and perhaps most importantly, exuding confidence in yourself (Elias, 2018). Her suggestions are meant to offer support and show us how “leaderful practice requires people to be engaged— to have the ability, motivation, and confidence to participate in leadership” (Raelin, 2003, p.74) General Motors (GM) CEO Mary Barra makes it a point to offer her insights and expertise to young girls and women to inspire them to achieve their personal and professional goals. Barra started her career with GM at the age of 18, where she was able to pursue higher education opportunities and eventually earned an MBA (Sahadi, 2018). Barra held several positions at GM before being named CEO in 2014. She became the first female to lead an automobile maker (Sahadi, 2018). Barra’s accomplishments include her innovative ideas and collaborative leadership style that developed after a disastrous safety issue that caused multiple injuries and deaths. Barra recalls, "I never want to put this behind us. I want to put this painful experience permanently in our collective memories” (Feloni, 2018, p. 7). In learning from prior mistakes, Barra worked diligently to rebuild trust, change company culture, and move GM forward positively. Subsequently, she promoted open lines of communication, offered transparency, and provided clear expectations (Feloni, 2018; Sahadi, 2018), empowering employees to become vital members of the GM team In sum, as women seek to land top leadership and management positions, their collaborative leadership style will help them to succeed. Collaborative leadership offers cross-functional intelligence, constructive conflict, and well-balanced goals and decisions. Many women welcome diversity and create a work environment that is inviting to people of all ages, races, ethnicities, and genders. As CEO Barra advises, “You need the right people, the right culture, and the right strategy. To be truly great, your team must have the diversity of thought and be willing to collaborate constructively” (Sahadi, 2018, p. 4). Finally, they have the advantage of cultivating a diverse professional network for future career development and success!

Jody Oliver, Women as Collaborative Leaders, June 25, 2019

Compassionate Leaders Vanessa Koch This paper explores women as compassionate leaders and their contributions to corporate leadership in the United States. A compassionate leader weighs all variables that make each person unique, affecting how they make their decisions. Compassionate leaders “recognize the potential contribution of each member of the community, no matter what his or her position or status” (Raelin, 2003, p. 206). Compassionate leaders create a positive and caring workplace culture. Psychologist Emma Seppala, a researcher at Yale and Stanford Universities and author of “The Happiness Track,” said, “The result, research shows, is a workplace that is more productive, more creative, that has less turnover, and whose clients have better results. It leads to a better bottom line.” (Jagannathan, 2018, para. 1) When compassion is present, it benefits all facets of the workplace. Each employee is unique, has a different background, has vastly different experiences in life, and brings an array of values to the table. Her admirers perceive Oprah as a caring individual whose concern and compassion for others animate every personal, professional, and career decision she makes. Oprah cares, demonstrating this fact leads them to care about others and themselves. In her leadership, Oprah has undeniably made care and compassion an industry. (Gini & Ronald, 2013) Oprah recognizes others’ uniqueness, making her a strong leader because employee diversity is an asset to the organization. “With knowledge of each follower’s unique characteristics and interests, leaders then assist followers in achieving their potential” (Van Dierendock & Patterson, 2015). Each employee’s thinking and problem-solving bring different backgrounds to the organization. The leader may recognize that there may be something more profound to the behavior and pursue methods to assist the employee. “Compassionate communities are characterized as endorsing a diversity of views, even those that do not conform to existing mental models and practices. In this way, compassion extends beyond one’s culture or borders to those less privileged (Raelin, 2003, p. 208). Mary Barra, CEO of General Motors, is a great example of recognizing this. Forbes ranks her fourth of the Most Powerful Women in 2018 (#4 Mary Barra, n.d.). Mary Barra recognizes the importance of treating employees equally and has accomplished equal pay within General Motors. “True gender equality isn’t just about pay and the representation of women on boards. It’s a far more complex issue,” van Maasdijk said. “Our research looks at 19 different factors, including benefits such as shared parental leave. We want to see a level playing field for every employee, not just women.” (Lareau, 2018, p. 14). “GM ranked No. 1 on the 2018 Global Report on Gender Equality. It was one of only two global businesses with no gender pay gap” (Lareau, 2018, para. 14). Women have made small advances in leadership positions in the past few decades. As of May 16, 2019, 33 of the companies ranking highest-grossing firms are led by female CEOs. That sum represents a disproportionately small share of the group, just 6.6%. But it also marks a considerable jump from last year’s 24, or 4.8% (Zillman, 2019). Zillman states, “The increase has come as institutional investors—citing research on the business benefits of diverse leadership—have pushed for new blood in boardrooms” (2019, para. 8). Women bring different traits to leadership, thus the growth of women in leadership roles. “Of relevance to the global mindset framework, the current literature shows that women demonstrate specific features that are particularly important to three subdimensions of the global mindset in terms of self-efficacy: intercultural empathy, diplomacy, and passion for diversity” (Javiden, Bullough, & Dibble, 2016, p. 59). Women bring an array of essential qualities to the workplace. Women are empathic listeners who value collaboration and teamwork while acting as experts at building relationships and encouraging others to achieve their maximum potential. These qualities work well with the skills men bring to the workplace. (Elias, 2018, p. 176) In closing, an organization that recognizes the importance of women in leadership and their strong traits will be better equipped and put their organization at an advantage point for success. Bringing a compassionate nature to organizations is helping women to run more businesses than ever because it is a different approach to other styles.

Vanessa L. Koch, Compassionate Leaders, June 28, 2019

Conclusion Dr. Kathy DesRoches Female leaders become role models for others. Women are exposed to positive and negative role models daily (The Power of Role Models, n.d.), and they serve as a reference for whom we want to become (The Power of Role Models, n.d.). Given that “relatable [female] role models will bring important future [female] scientists, mathematicians, technologists, engineers, innovators, and leaders into the career pipeline” (Olsson & Sarah E Martiny, 2018), it is essential to provide women in the Granite State College leadership program examples of successful female leaders using Raelin’s framework of Leaderful Organization. We did this so that, as leaders, we are not only using the lens of male leadership but recognizing there is another lens References #4 Mary Barra. (n.d.). Retrieved from Forbes: https://www.forbes.com/profile/mary-barra/#3ee2e13610ad A Velayudhan, K. V. (2013). Emotional intelligence among working and non-working women. Journal of Psychosocial Research, 101-110. Brown, B. (2018). Dare to lead: Bravel work. Tough conversations. Whole hearts. (Kindle ed.). New York, NH: Penguin Random House. Buvinic, M., Lunde, T., & Sinha, N. (2010). Investing in Gender Equality: Looking Ahead. World Bank. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTPREMNET/Resources/C16TDAT_275-296.pdf Catalyst. (2019). Pyramid: Women in S&P 500 Companies. Retrieved from https://www.catalyst.org/research/women-in-sp-500-companies/ Collinson, S. (2016, June 2016). Hillary Clinton clinches the Democratic presidential nomination. Retrieved from https://www.cnn.com/2016/06/06/politics/hillary-clinton-nomination-2016/index.html Connley, C. (2019, May 16). The number of women running Fortune 500 companies is at a record high. Retrieved from Make it: https://www.cnbc.com/2019/05/16/the-number-of-women-running-fortune-500-companies-is-at-a-record-high.html Dollar, D., Fisman, R., & Gatti, R. (1999). Are women really the "fairer" sex? Corruption and women in government. World Bank. Retrieved from http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2000/08/26/000094946_0008120532266/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pd Elias, E. (2018). Lessons learned from women in leadership positions. Work, 59(2), 175-181. doi:10.3233 Feloni, R. (2018, November 14). GM CEO Mary Barra said the recall crisis 2014 forever changed her leadership style. Retrieved from Business Insider: https://www.businessinsider.com/gm-mary-barra-recall-crisis-leadership-style-2018-11 Gini, A., & Ronald, G. (2013). 10 Virtues of outstanding leaders: Leadership and character. In 10 Virtues of outstanding leaders: Leadership and Character. Wiley-Blackwell. Gregersen, E. (2018, August ). Sheryl Sandberg. Retrieved from Britannica.com: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sheryl-Sandberg Henderson, N.-M. (2016, June 8). Hillary Clinton's historic moment. Retrieved from https://www.cnn.com/2016/06/06/politics/clinton-first-woman-nominee-democratic-primary/index.html Houego, L. (2019, June 13). The power of collective wisdom. Retrieved from Financial Review: https://www.afr.com/work-and-careers/leaders/the-power-of-collective-wisdom-20190515-p51nkv Jagannathan, M. (2018, April 18). Why being compassionate--instead of ruling with an iron fist--makes you a better boss. Retrieved from Market Watch: https://www.marketwatch.com/story/why-being-compassionate----instead-of-ruling-with-an-iron-fist----can-make-you-a-better-boss-2018-04-18 Javiden, M., Bullough, A., & Dibble, R. (2016, February). Mind the gap: Gender differences in global leadership self-efficacies. The academy of management perspectives, 30(1), 59-73. doi:10.5465/amp.2015.0035 Klos, D. (2013). The Status of Women in the U.S. Media 2013. Women's Media Center. Retrieved from http://www.womensmediacenter.com/assets/site/reports/statistics/51113ed5df3e0d0b79_zzzm6go0b.pdf Lareau, J. (2018, October 4). GM is named the no. 1 company in the world for gender equality. Retrieved from Seattle Times: https://www.seattletimes.com/business/gm-named-no-1-company-in-the-world-for-gender-equality Levi, D. (2017). Group Dynamics for Teams. Los Angles: SAGE Publications. Lewis, H. (2018, November 23). “How come you talk like a white girl?” In her memoir, Michelle Obama shows she is just as adept at weaving together the personal and political as her husband, Barack. Retrieved from New Statesman: Retrieved from https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsglr&AN=edsgcl.565200168&site=eds-live Lewis, H. (2018, November 21). How come you talk like a white girl?: Michelle Obama's deeply moving memoir Becoming. Retrieved from New Statesman America: https://www.newstatesman.com/culture/books/2018/11/how-come-you-talk-white-girl-michelle-obama-s-deeply-moving-memoir-becoming Mendez, M., & Busenbark, J. (2015, March). Shared leadership and gender: All members are equal … but some more than others. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 36(1), 17-34. doi:10.1108/LODJ-11-2012-0147 O'Connor, K. (2010). Gender and women's leadership: A reference handbook. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Olsson, M., & Sarah E Martiny. (2018, December 7). A new review article highlights the importance of role models in countering stereotypes. Retrieved from The Chronical of evidence-based mentoring: https://www.evidencebasedmentoring.org/new-review-article-highlights-importance-of-role-models-who-counter-steryotypes/ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2010). Investing in Women and Girls. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/dac/gender-development/45704694.pdf Pew Research Center. (2018). Women and Leadership 2018. Retrieved from https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2018/09/20/women-and-leadership-2018/ Raelin, J. (2003). Creating Leaderful Organizations. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc. Raelin, J. (2003). Creating Leaderful Organizations. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Raelin, J. (2019, June 15). Twitter. Ramirez, M. (2016, February 4). Huffington Foundation endows chair for Brené Brown, social work researcher and author of ‘Daring Greatly.’ Retrieved from University of Houston: https://www.uh.edu/news-events/stories/2016/February/24BreneBrownEndowment.php Rosoff, M. (2016, March 23). Look at how much Sheryl Sandberg has done for Facebook. Retrieved from Business Insider: https://www.businessinsider.com/sheryl-sandberg-8-years-at-facebook-2016-3 Sahadi, J. (2018, 10 03). How Sheryl Sandberg practices "ruthless prioritization." Retrieved 6 22, 2019, from CNN Business: https://www.cnn.com/2018/10/03/success/sheryl-sandberg-profile/index.html Sahadi, J. (2018, October 11). What GM's Mary Barra learned early: Stop saying sorry. Retrieved from Fox 11: https://www.keyt.com/news/what-gms-mary-barra-learned-early-stop-saying-sorry/805897916 Sources of Power. (n.d.). Retrieved from Boundless Books: http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/leadership-9/defining-leadership-68/sources-of-power-339-7332/index.html Tarr-Whelan, L. (2009). Women lead the way. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. The power of role models. (n.d.). Retrieved from Women Win: https://guides.womenwin.org/ig/programme-design/developing-girls-leadership/the-power-of-role-models United States Census Bureau. (2018, July 1). QuickFacts United States. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045218 Van Dierendock, D., & Patterson, K. (2015). Compassionate love as the cornerstone of servant leadership: An integration of previous theorizing and research. Journal of business ethics. doi:10.1007/s10551-01402085-z Zalis, S. (2019, March 6). Power of the pack: Women who support women are more successful. Retrieved from Forbes: https://www.forbes.com/sites/shelleyzalis/2019/03/06/power-of-the-pack-women-who-support-women-are-more-successful/#760a0d3a1771 Zenger, J., & Folkman, J. (2012). Are women better leaders than men? Retrieved from Harvard business review: https://hbr.org/2012/03/a-study-in-leadership-women-do Zillman, C. (2019, May 19). The Fortune 500 has more women CEO than ever before. Retrieved from Fortune 500: http://fortune.com/2019/05/16/fortune-500-female-ceos

Inclusive Leadership and Potential Barriers

smm1123 — Tue, 07 Apr 2020 17:17:29 +0000

Introduction Despite advances in diversity that have occurred in the past, women continue to be excluded from top leadership positions in the corporate environment. Today’s diverse and constantly changing environment requires more than masculinity as the norm and a command and control leadership approach. It needs a leadership style that will advocate for the inclusivity of traditionally excluded voices in leadership. It needs a leadership style to enhance the four critical processes that leadership mobilizes (setting a mission, actualizing goals, sustaining commitment, and responding to change) (Raelin, 2003). In this paper, I will explore the tenets of the inclusive leadership style and its distinct characteristics and demonstrate its ability to have “all voices on deck” in top leadership. I will also explore potential barriers to effectively applying inclusive leadership. As a millennial woman of color from the African New American community in the United States, inclusivity in leadership is deeply personal. It is an issue that I constantly struggle with, and in helping others not feel like it’s a “solo struggle.” The reality is that African refugee woman in America is a rare commodity in higher management, given that women, in general, are already underrepresented. Additionally, the representation of leaders is inherently gendered in the current leadership landscape. Leaders are judged based on stereotypes and expectations grounded in “masculinist perspectives about leadership” (Shea & Renn, 2017, p. 84). This reality shapes my leadership opportunities and how I would choose to participate. I hope the inclusive leadership style will expand the discussion beyond just the gendered idea of inclusion to include other minorities, particularly the newest member of the U.S. society, refugee/immigrant leaders. What is Inclusive Leadership? Inclusive leadership is about including everyone. This leadership style focuses on “having the courage to take conscious steps to break down barriers for people at risk of being excluded from society ” (Bortini, Paci, Rise & Rojnik, 2016, p. 19). African refugee/immigrant women are among the groups at risk of exclusion in top leadership, representing different backgrounds, experiences, and abilities. The inclusive leadership approach appreciates diversity and the contributions of everyone. Furthermore, this leadership approach encourages full engagement in all aspects of organizational functioning. The objective, the authors added, is “to create, change and innovate while balancing everybody’s needs” (p. 9). Essentially, inclusive leadership is centered around relationships and valuing differences. Feelings of exclusion are common in my leadership journey and for many other women, people of color, immigrants, and refugees. I struggle to fit in and, when unsuccessful, feel cut off from full involvement. According to Bortini et al., “one of the primary needs of individuals at risk of exclusion is to be accepted as they are and not to be regarded as an equal, able to contribute with all of their abilities” (p. 14). Immigrants and refugees can face additional barriers to inclusion, including cultural (language, social life, religious) differences. Structural and socio-economic barriers are also contributing factors to exclusion practices. Feeling left out can be exacerbated by a hostile environment in leadership. Inclusive leadership is necessary for all sectors of society and all individuals, particularly those in top management. Inclusive leadership challenges and empowers people because it is based on everyone’s inherent worth, human rights, awareness of interconnectedness, recognition that power influences inclusion efforts, and shared responsibilities (Bortini et al., 2016). What Do Inclusive Leaders Do? Dillon and Bourke (2016) identified six key characteristics that distinguish inclusive leaders. The first characteristic is commitment. Champions of inclusive leadership are motivated by their values, including a “deep-seated sense of fairness that, for some, is rooted in personal experience” (p. 3). Inclusive leaders hold themselves accountable for creating a welcoming culture in their organizations. They devote time, energy, and resources to nurture an inclusive workforce. Courage is the second characteristic found in inclusive leaders. They demonstrate courage in challenging organizations to think beyond homogeneous attitudes and practices. Another way they show courage is by not being afraid to exhibit humility; courage and humility allow leaders to accept their limitations and seek guidance from others in overcoming them. They admit to not having all the answers, which for some leaders is very difficult (Dillon & Bourke, 2019). The third characteristic that distinguishes inclusive leaders is cognizance of bias. Inclusive leaders understand that personal and organizational biases can negatively impact diversity and inclusion. As a result, they implement policies, processes, and structures to prevent the infiltration of such biases in the workplace or any organization. The fourth characteristic found in inclusive leaders is curiosity. This includes being open-minded and having a passion for learning, and a desire for exposure to diverse perspectives. “Inclusive leaders’ ability to engage in respectful questioning, actively listen to others, and synthesize a range of ideas makes the people around them feel valued, respected, and represented” (Dillon & Bourke, 2016, p. 4.). Cultural intelligence is the fifth characteristic identified in inclusive leaders. These leaders understand that knowledge of other cultures is fundamental in fostering inclusiveness. Cultural intelligence allows a leader to respond better to different cultural norms and behaviors and enables leaders to adjust their style accordingly. Additionally, they understand how culture can shape world views and stereotypes. This is very important in setting and communicating expectations in any organization. Lastly, inclusive leaders are collaborative and able to share ideas willingly. A psychologically safe environment is critical to successful collaboration where “people feel empowered to express their opinions freely with the group” (p. 5). According to (Raelin, 2003, p. 131 ), “to create an environment that offers psychological safety is a high task,” especially “when covering up has been the dominant reaction to contrary or contradictory information.” Furthermore, leaders pay attention to team processes to allow diverse thinking to occur. Potential Barriers to Inclusive Leadership Although the benefits of inclusive leadership are clear, more competent teams, better decision making, effective problem solving, better financial gains, and customer satisfaction, to name a few, common barriers can hinder an organization’s ability/efforts to implement inclusive leadership practices. These barriers can prevent companies from becoming inclusive and prevent them from making the most of any diversity within their organization. According to Gully and Phillips (2012), common obstacles are the “like me” bias, stereotypes, the perceived threat of loss, and ethnocentrism. As described below, these exist in many organizations and can get in the way of organizations’ efforts to maximize their diversity. The authors noted that these barriers can arise from decision-making, psychological factors, and employees’ lack of awareness. Therefore, organizations must understand and proactively address these barriers to minimize their impact and enhance inclusion. Although it is human nature to associate with those like ourselves, the “like me” bias tendencies can negatively impact recruitment by focusing solely on people who look like the existing staff. This can contribute to the unwillingness to employ people of different backgrounds, creating a culture of ingroup and outgroup dynamics in an organizational setting. The result is a homogeneous work environment. This can be a disservice to efforts to increase diversity and inclusion. According to Gully and Phillips(2012), stereotypes, “beliefs about individual or group based on the idea that everyone in that group will behave the same” (p. 52), have the power to diminish inclusion opportunities for minorities, women, individuals with disabilities, and older workers. Stereotypes are incredibly harmful due to the judgemental tendencies implied and the lack of consideration of individual uniqueness. Sometimes, the results can be subtle racism, sexism, prejudice, and discomfort. These beliefs can determine what makes good/poor employees, control the distribution of employment opportunities, and undermine diversity efforts. Another common setback can come from those who perceive inclusive efforts as threatening their career opportunities. The authors further noted that this perceived threat of loss could lead members of groups traditionally the predominant employees of a particular workforce or occupation to grow anxious or angry. The need to protect their prospects can impede those of others (Gully and Phillips, 2012). The authors also noted that the perceived threat of loss “influences employees' willingness to help mentor minority employees, recruit diverse candidates for positions, and support diversity initiatives” (p. 52). Ethnocentrism, a belief that one’s language, native country, and cultural rules/norms are superior to all others, is similarly impactful in a negative way to an inclusiveness attitude. Organizations are susceptible to these challenges, especially when advocating for inclusive leadership practices. However, the extent to which an organization will succeed in its inclusive efforts is due to consistent efforts to be vigilant about these challenges. Conclusion Inclusive leadership is a promising model for capitalizing on the existing diversity in the modern workforce. This model helps leaders to lead innovative teams and, at the same time, create an environment where people feel they can bring their whole selves to work. Acting inclusively is linked to employees’ increased satisfaction, performance, commitment, motivation, creativity, innovation, engagement, and well-being. These outcomes benefit both employees and organizations. Additionally, inclusive leadership has the potential to positively contribute to efforts to engage groups that are traditionally excluded from senior leadership. When the organization recognizes the value of its senior leadership team reflecting its workforce's diversity, inclusivity principles need to be embedded and implemented throughout the employment environment. For employees of a more diverse workforce to follow and respect an organization's leadership, the inclusive leadership model is more likely to achieve that result. References Bortini, P., Paci, A., Rise, A., & Rojnik, I. (2019). INCLUSIVE LEADERSHIP: Theoretical Framework. Retrieved 10 August 2019, from https://inclusiveleadership.eu/il_theoreticalframework_en.pdf Dillon, B., & Bourke, J. (2016). 6 Characteristics of Inclusive Leaders. Retrieved 20 August 2019, from https://deloitte.wsj.com/cio/2016/05/04/6-characteristics-of-inclusive-leaders/ Elliott, Carole & Stead, Valerie. (2008). Learning from Leading Women's Experience: Towards a Sociological Understanding. Leadership. 4. 159-180. 10.1177/1742715008089636. Phillips, J. and Gully, S. (2012). Organizational Behavior. 1st ed. Mason: South-Western Cengage Learning. Raelin, J. A. (2003). Creating leaderful organizations: How to Bring out Leadership in Everyone. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler

Inclusive Leadership. By Bahati, B. (2019) Content and user contributions on this site are licensed under CC BY: Attribution with attribution required.

Vulnerability in Leadership

smm1123 — Wed, 28 Oct 2020 18:44:11 +0000

Introduction

Dr. Brené Brown popularized vulnerability research through her years of research on shame. Utilizing vulnerability daily can “demonstrate transparency and an openness to emotional exposure” (Lopez, 2018, ix) with others. This chapter aims to dive deeper into the measure of vulnerability and how it is closely related to trust, courage, self-awareness, and three leadership styles: authentic, ethical, and transformational.

Vulnerability: Definition and Myths

Definitions of vulnerability among researchers vary but include similar components of putting trust in another (Lapidot, Kark & Shamir, 2007), acknowledging failure (Ito & Bligh, 2017), and risking emotional exposure (Crouch, 2016 and Brown, 2012a). Gambetta (1988) describes vulnerable individuals as those who instill trust in others and believe that no harm will come to them (Lapidot, Kark & Shamir, 2007, p. 17). Displaying vulnerability can also be a chance to embrace changes and challenges while feeling safe enough to acknowledge failure (Ito & Bligh, 2017, p. 67). Vulnerability is emotional exposure (Brown, 2012a) that threatens the loss “of our sense of self” (Crouch, 2016, p. 41). Cléro (2018) adds that “vulnerability should be differentiated from weakness or from the frailty that results from it” (p. 6). Brown further states that “we think about vulnerability as a dark emotion. We think of vulnerability at the core of fear and shame and grief and disappointment, things that we do not want to feel” (Brown, 2012a). Yet facing the complex “dark emotion” can lead to “every positive emotion that we need in our lives: love, belonging, joy, empathy” (Brown, 2012a). For this paper, I will define vulnerability as “the emotion we experience during times of uncertainty, risk, and emotional exposure” (Brown, 2018, p. 19). “When a leader embraces failure and shares vulnerability with humility, followers can connect with the leader emotionally and are more likely to share feelings of vulnerability themselves” (Ito & Bligh, 2017, p.67). Some examples of actions that a vulnerable leader might take include reaching out to an employee with an ill child or family member, checking in with a coworker who experienced a recent loss, or taking responsibility for a mistake at work (Seppälä, 2014). "Collaboration, then, as a way to be morally accountable, requires a deep understanding of vulnerability: the generosity, humility, and patience needed to work through conflicts, misunderstandings, and miscommunications" (Pignatelli, 2011, p. 223). In her book, The Power of Vulnerability, Dr. Brené Brown identifies four myths regarding vulnerability and then adds two more in Dare to Lead for a total of six:

Vulnerability is a character defect and weakness (Brown, 2012a).
“I don’t do vulnerability” (Brown, 2012a).
“That we can create a culture in our family, in our work, and the big culture that we live in even and that we can do this alone” (Brown, 2012a).
“You can trust without vulnerability. It’s a very chicken/egg proposition” (Brown, 2012a).
“Trust comes before vulnerability” (Brown, 2018, p. 29).
“Vulnerability is disclosure” (Brown, 2018, p. 34).

Vulnerability and Trust

Vulnerability directly involves the issue of trust (Brown, 2012a). Leaders “must be truthful and consistent in their behavior and must not regularly disregard employees’ suggestions and opinions” (Thrash, 2012, p. 4). The best place to work “is one where employees trust the people they work with, have pride in the work they do, and enjoy the people they work with” (Bush & Lewis-Kulin, 2018). One leadership theory that directly relates to vulnerability and trust is the leader-member exchange theory. This is the theory “that leaders form relationships with their subordinates that fall into two broad groups: an in-group characterized by strong exchange relationships, and an out-group that lacks solid leader connections” (Miller, 2013). In-group members tend to be high-performing employees who take on more responsibility and contribute more to an organization (Lunenburg, 2010, p. 2). The leader takes more risks with members of the in-group, as higher risks correlate to a higher level of trust in the employee (Scandura & Pellegrini, 2008, p. 102). Yet Scandura and Pellegrini (2008) found that a leader’s trust is still vulnerable in relationships with in-group members (p. 101). The severity of the risk could be underestimated, leading to “a false expectation about the leader's vulnerability” (Brower, Schoorman, & Tan, 2000, p. 241).

Vulnerability and Courage

“Vulnerability is our most accurate measure of courage. To be vulnerable, to let ourselves be seen, is incredibly difficult” (Brown, 2012a). “You can embrace vulnerability and enact courage to promote equity through allowing yourself to be seen, believing that you are enough” (Bettez, 2017). “Courage is contagious. To scale daring leadership and build courage in teams and organizations, we must cultivate a culture in which brave work, tough conversations, and whole hearts are expected, and armor is not necessary or rewarded” (Brown, 2018, p. 12). Brown (2012a) notes that courage is one of the significant paradoxes of vulnerability, “It’s the first thing I look for in you, but it’s the last thing I want you to see in me. In you, it’s courage; in me, it’s inadequacy. In you, it’s strength and lovability; in me, it’s shame” (Brown, 2012a).

Vulnerability and Authenticity/Self-Awareness

“How much we know ourselves is extremely important, but how we treat ourselves is the most important” (Brown, 2012a). As we grow up, “we experience pain, shame, and struggle with worthiness, we shut down parts of ourselves. And we shut down those things that make us vulnerable” (Brown, 2012a). “If I have never expected my closest family members to support or connect with me emotionally, then I am unfamiliar with the experience of being emotionally vulnerable; being encouraged to do so would likely feel prohibitive and foreign” (Chenfeng et al., 2016, p. 562). "When individuals feel less vulnerable or more secure in their relationships with others, they are more likely to let others see them for who they are" (Oc et al., 2019, p. 4). Sané Bell wrote: “When I lack self-awareness as a leader and when I’m not connected with the intentions driving my thoughts, feelings, and actions, I limit the perspective and insights that I can share with the people I lead” (Brown, 2018, p. 179). "Leaders need to be authentic for their displays of humility to be effective" (Oc et al., 2019, p. 19). “Authenticity draws attention to who a leader is—whether framed in terms of identity, character, personality, or any other construct of selfhood” (Tomkins & Nicholds, 2017, p. 6). Sedikides, Slabu, Lenton, & Thomas (2017) define authenticity as the "sense or feeling that one is in alignment with one's true or genuine self" (Oc et al., 2019, p. 1). Avolio and Gardner (2005) describe authentic leaders as “self-aware and self-regulating individuals, whose beliefs and behaviors are anchored by a commitment to their ‘true self’” (Tomkins & Nicholds, 2017, p. 6). "When leaders engage in reflective practices, their own goals and performance are likely to thrive" (Seefeld, 2016, p. 54). Kezar, Carducci, & Contreras-McGavin (2006) explain that “successful leaders are authentic and behave with consistency, can read the emotions of others, and attend to the emotional aspects of the organization” (Seefeld, 2016, p. 36). Wallace and Tice (2012) note that an individual's desire to be socially accepted can affect whether they act authentically (Oc et al., 2019, p. 3). Individuals often show an inauthentic version of themselves at work and may opt to do so because they feel vulnerable (Oc et al., 2019, p. 3). "At the same time, our capacity and need to take action and demonstrate initiative speaks, equally, to our vulnerability and fragility, to the very real risk of inflicting both intended and unintended pain" (Pignatelli, 2011, p. 225).

Vulnerability and Gender/Identity

Fletcher (2004) reflects that traditional leadership characteristics tend to be masculine, “such as individualism, control, assertiveness, and skills of advocacy and domination,” while more modern characteristics are considered feminine, “such as empathy, community, vulnerability, and skills of inquiry and collaboration” (p. 650). While people may instinctively think of the masculine traits when describing a leader, an effective leader needs to have an “androgynous combination of feminine and masculine traits,” where men display slightly less assertiveness and women slightly more integrity (Hoyt, 2010, p. 486). Gardner (2011) finds “authenticity carries masculine connotations in connection with the Enlightenment’s rational subject,” while Tomkins and Simpson (2015) note “it can also be feminine, especially when the discourses of authentic and caring leadership are interwoven (Tomkins & Nicholds, 2017, p. 20). When discussing the myth of vulnerability as a weakness and that people don’t “do vulnerability,” Brown (2012a) notes that statement is “normally followed up by a gender comment or a professional comment” such as “I don’t do vulnerability, I’m a dude.” "Encouraging leader humility in the workplace may not be an easy task given that many organizational leaders fear that expressing humility demonstrates a lack of competence to others" (Oc et al., 2019, p. 21). "Despite being underrepresented, women are perceived to have more desirable leadership qualities than men" (Seefeld, 2016, p. 41). Bass (1990) notes that “women are more likely than men to adjust or 'modify' their leadership characteristics as they move up or down the hierarchical leadership ladder" (Seefeld, 2016, p. 100). Schreiber (2002) notes that “women continue to have perceptions about their position(s) in higher education, embracing a collaborative leadership style that can be misunderstood or disrespected, and at times, feeling out of sync with some male-dominated administrations" (Seefeld, 2016, p. 100).“We ask [men] to be vulnerable, we beg them to let us in, and we plead with them to tell us when they’re afraid, but the truth is that most women can’t stomach it. In those moments when real vulnerability happens in men, most of us recoil with fear, and that fear manifests as everything from disappointment to disgust” (Brown, 2012b, p. 95).

Leadership Styles

While there are numerous leadership theories and styles, Copeland (2016) found values-based leadership styles to be the most effective in her research: authentic, ethical, and transformational (p. 79). These three styles of leadership all involve some level of risk and will be featured in the study.

Authentic Leadership

Authentic leadership is “the process whereby leaders are aware of their thoughts and behaviors within the context in which they operate” (Maximo et al., 2019, p. 2). Walumbwa et al. (2008) outline the components of authentic leadership as self-awareness (a leader’s understanding of themselves, including strengths and weaknesses), balanced processing (a leader’s ability to make objective decisions after weighing all the evidence), and relational transparency (a leader’s strength in communicating honest and genuine information as well as opinions) (Maximo et al., 2019, p. 2). Michie and Gooty (2005) noted that emotions directed toward others motivate authentic leaders “to behave in ways that reflect self-transcendent values” (Avolio & Gardner, 2005, p. 318). For example, gratitude and appreciation (other-directed emotions) would motivate an authentic leader to model values of honesty and loyalty (Avolio & Gardner, 2005, p. 318). While these components/traits are essential for an authentic leader, authentic leaders also have a significant impact on their organization and their followers (Maximo et al., 2019, p. 3); thus, authentic leadership should focus on the relationship between the leader and the follower too (Avolio & Gardner, 2005, p. 321). Authentic followers are likely to display the behaviors and traits described above, paralleling those exhibited by their authentic leader (Avolio & Gardner, 2005, p. 322). Followers may also show “increased trust and a stronger willingness to cooperate” (Maximo et al., 2019, p. 3). As with any relationship based on trust, both parties take a risk in being vulnerable (Maximo et al., 2019, p. 3). Detert and Burris (2007) find that employees or followers may not take the risk “if they perceive these risks to result in negative consequences” or if they cause embarrassment (Maximo et al., 2019, p. 3).

Ethical Leadership

Brown et al. (2005) define ethical leadership as “the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making" (p. 120). Kaptein (2016) adds that an ethical leader is not just a moral person and manager but also a “moral entrepreneur who creates new norms” (p. 1136). This entrepreneurship should lead to the “development of both society and the trust of stakeholders” (Kaptein, 2016, p. 1136). Brown and Treviño (2014) find that “leaders who have had ethical role models are more likely to become ethical leaders” (Kaptein, 2016, p. 1135). A leader must be “perceived as attractive, credible, and legitimate” to be an effective and influential ethical leader (Brown et al., 2005, p. 120). Kalshoven et al. (2011) also find that ethical leaders are agreeable and conscientious (Kaptein, 2016, p. 1135). Brown et al. (2005) studied how MBA students described a leader they perceived as ethical. The results included a leader who listens, keeps their followers’ best interests in mind, is a role model for ethics, applies discipline when ethics are violated, makes fair decisions, and can be trusted (Kaptein, 2016, p. 1137). Kaptein (2016) argues that ethical leadership is even an essential part of transformational and authentic leadership “because ethics lies at the heart of leadership” (p. 1136).

Transformational Leadership

Bass and Riggio (2006) describe transformational leadership as motivating others through a joint mission or challenge that empowers followers and encourages them to develop as leaders (p. 3). Transformational leaders tend to have more satisfied, committed followers with elevated work performances (Bass & Riggio, 2006, p. 4). This style of leadership addresses “the follower’s sense of self-worth” (Bass & Riggio, 2006, p. 4). Carleton, Barling, and Trivisonno (2018) also found a strong connection between a leader’s trait of mindfulness and their positive actions as a transformational leader. The components of transformational leadership include idealized influence (acting as a robust role model), inspirational motivation (motivating others through a shared vision or common goal), intellectual stimulation (encouraging followers to find creative and innovative solutions), and individualized consideration (paying attention to each follower’s needs and adjusting mentoring strategies to fit those needs) (Bass & Riggio, 2006, p. 5-6). Individualized consideration is most important regarding vulnerability as it “involves leaders creating relationships with followers that demonstrate care and attention with follower’s needs and emotions” (Simonis, 2015, p. 7). A leader who applies individualized consideration tends to build relationships with greater trust (Simonis, 2015, p. 7). A concern regarding transformational leadership is that a leader could lead their followers astray with “destructive” and “selfish” motivations, making a leader’s authenticity vital in a successful relationship (Bass & Riggio, 2006, p. 4).

Industry: Higher Education

Developing a method of teaching vulnerability would help “to actualize the goals of a higher education” (Brantmeier, 2013). Brantmeier (2013) recommends an “approach to education that invites vulnerability and deepens learning through a process of self and mutual disclosure on the part of co-learners in the classroom.” Amey (2006) “suggests that leaders in higher education should be developed not on a series of manuals or ‘how-to’ writings, but rather by understanding identities, roles, gender and race, critical thinking, and learning” (Seefeld, 2016, p. 36). Trivellas and Dargenidou (2009) found that leadership means “more than simply being a manager, but also working for the good of the institution, in and amongst colleagues” (Seefeld, 2016, p. 38). Burns (1978) explains that "leaders must communicate their professional needs to colleagues in such a way that does not simply wield power, but that also addresses the wants, needs, and other motivations at play amongst his or her colleagues" (Seefeld, 2016, p. 56). “The purpose of such sharing is to go beyond understanding power, privilege, and oppression on individual levels and dive into the murky waters of institutional, cultural, societal, and structural levels of oppression, power, and privilege” (Brantmeier, 2013). Goldberg (2001) “states that one must ‘believe that what you are doing will help people’” (Seefeld, 2016, p. 37). References: Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 315–338. Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. E. (2006). Transformational leadership. L. Erlbaum Associates. Bettez, S. (2017). Flipping the script from talking to teens about “celebrating diversity” to promoting equity through embracing vulnerability and enacting courage. Multicultural Perspectives, 19(2), 90–97. Brower, H. H., Schoorman, F., & Tan, H. H. (2000). A model of relational leadership: The integration of trust and leader-member exchange. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(2), 227–250. Brown, B. (2018). Dare to lead: brave work, tough conversations, whole hearts. Random House Publishing. Brown, B. (2015). Daring greatly: How the Courage to be vulnerable transforms the way we live, love, parent, and lead. Random House Publishing. Brown, B. (2012a). The power of vulnerability: Teachings on authenticity, connection, & courage [Audiobook]. Sounds True. Brown, B. (2012b). Vulnerability and Inspired Leadership. Retrieved from https://www.impatientoptimists.org/Posts/2012/11/Leadership-Series-Vulnerability-and-Inspired-Leadership?fullweb=1 Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97, 117–134. Bush, M., & Lewis-Kulin, S. (2018, February 20). What it takes to be one of the 100 best companies to work for. Retrieved from https://fortune.com/2018/02/15/best-companies-salesforce/ Carleton, E. L., Barling, J., & Trivisonno, M. (2018). Leaders’ trait mindfulness and transformational leadership: The mediating roles of leaders’ positive affect and leadership self-efficacy. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 50(3), 185–194. Chenfeng, J., Kim, L., Wu, Y., & Knudson-Martin, C. (2016). Addressing Culture, Gender, and Power with Asian American Couples: Application of Socio-Emotional Relationship Therapy. Family Process, 56(3), 558–573. Cléro, J.-P. (2018). Two mathematical patterns of vulnerability. Philosophy, Social, & Human Disciplines, 2, 5–24. Copeland, M. K. (2016). The impact of authentic, ethical, transformational leadership on leader effectiveness. Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics, 13(3), 79–97. Crouch, A. (2016). Strong and weak. Intervarsity Press. Fletcher, J. K. (2004). The paradox of postheroic leadership: An essay on gender, power, and transformational change. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(5), 647–661. Hoyt, C. L. (2010). Women, men, and leadership: Exploring the gender gap at the top. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(7), 484–498. Ito, A., & Bligh, M. (2017). Feeling vulnerable? Disclosure of vulnerability in the charismatic leadership relationship. Journal of Leadership Studies, 10(3), 66-70. Kaptein, M. (2017). The moral entrepreneur: A new component of ethical leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 156(4), 1135–1150. Lapidot, Y., Kark, R., & Shamir, B. (2007). The impact of situational vulnerability on the development and erosion of followers' trust in their leader. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(1), 16–34. Lopez, S. O. (2018). Vulnerability in leadership: The power of the courage to descend. Industrial-Organizational Psychology Dissertations, 16, 1–69. Lunenburg, F. (2010). Leader-member exchange theory: Another perspective on the leadership process. International Journal of Management, Business and Administration, 13(1), 1-5. Maximo, N., Stander, M. W., & Coxen, L. (2019). Authentic leadership and work engagement: The indirect effects of psychological safety and trust in supervisors. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 45. Miller, S. P. (2013). Leader-member exchange. Salem Press Encyclopedia. Oc, B., Daniels, M. A., Diefendorff, J. M., Bashshur, M. R., & Greguras, G. J. (2019). Humility breeds authenticity: How authentic leader humility shapes follower vulnerability and felt authenticity. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. Pignatelli, F. (2011). Being Accountable. Schools: Studies in Education, 8(2), 215–230. Scandura, T. A., & Pellegrini, E. K. (2008). Trust and leader—Member exchange. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 15(2), 101–110. Seefeld, S. J. (2016). Leadership competencies at Concordia University system institutions. UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones, 2735, 1–129. Seppälä, E. (2018). What bosses gain by being vulnerable. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2014/12/what-bosses-gain-by-being-vulnerable Simonis, K. (2015). The impact of vulnerability on transformational leadership. Academia, 1–22. Thrash, A. (2012). Leadership in higher education. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 2(13), 1–12. Tomkins, L., & Nicholds, A. (2017). Make me authentic, but not here: Reflexive struggles with academic identity and authentic leadership. Management Learning, 48(3), 253–270.

“Vulnerability in Higher Education Leadership” Plante, M. (March 2020). CC BY 4.0

Leadership Styles of Conductors

smm1123 — Thu, 14 Apr 2022 18:48:15 +0000

Leadership Styles of Music Ensemble Conductors

By Ty Gioacchini The study of leadership is valuable, as it provides current and future leaders with tools to hone their craft. Various leadership theories and models identify leadership styles and their strengths and weaknesses. This serves as a foundation for understanding the type of leadership different situations call for. Leaders are more prepared to think critically about how to approach challenges and help others in their efforts to achieve goals. It is critical, though, that students of leadership theories genuinely understand the concepts and models they are presented with. Frequently, the text and resources used to support leadership studies provide practical, real-world examples of concepts in action, such as case studies. These are often focused on leadership in corporate organizations and governments. Some people might find this to be generally applicable. However, there can be value in exploring and presenting leadership theories as they occur in other practical contexts. Having a background in the performing arts, I often connected the concepts presented during my graduate studies in leadership to experiences I have had as part of music ensembles. Doing this helped me to understand the concepts more thoroughly as I considered how certain behaviors and tactics affected the group. This study will discuss how music ensemble conductors are leaders. It will present how some conductors execute certain leadership qualities and highlight commonalities in their habits. Adding this information to the existing literature about conductor leadership will contribute additional practical explanations of leadership habits and serve as a starting point for more research into what we can learn about leadership from music ensembles. Literature Review Conductors as Leaders It is easy to identify the conductor as a leader when thinking about leaders and looking at music ensembles. They are in a role that positions them physically before the musicians, typically elevated on a podium. While the initial glance and untrained eye may see only swinging arms, this role is much more purposive. Conductors bring together groups of people to execute a task, sometimes with a timeline of only a few days. Leaders need to navigate the stages of group development while maintaining an environment where musicians can and want to perform at their highest capability (Kerres, 2012). Katz (2014) provides three essential skills of leadership: technical skills, conceptual skills, and intrapersonal skills. For conductors, these are their music and organizational skills, artistic vision, and charisma, respectively (Zel & Onay, 2012). Each skill is influential in leadership, but the value of each as part of leadership in the music ensemble context can vary. Jansson, et al. (2019) surveyed conductors on the relative importance of musical-technical, situational-relational, and existential foundation competencies and found that conductors tend to consider their existential competencies more critical. These are the competencies that relate more to commitment to the ensemble. Conductors need to connect with the musicians. Zel and Onay (2012) found that conductors as leaders need to put that connection before their interests. They need to leverage emotional intelligence and eschew egocentric behaviors. Furthermore, behavior that is authentic and honest is favorable. This is not only because of how it makes musicians feel but also because it boosts quality. Ensemble performance is enhanced by leadership behaviors that connect with the members, as has been found numerous times (Kammerhoff, et al., 2019; Matthews & Kitsantas, 2013; Petricic, 2011; Rowold & Rohmann, 2009). Leadership Behaviors Characterizing leadership styles and behaviors simply as good or bad is subjective, but studies have found specific styles and behaviors that garner positive outcomes when used by conductors. Boerner, et al. (2004) proposed and found the value of a directive-charismatic leadership style. This combination is valuable in a music ensemble because it synthesizes a leadership style for ensuring tasks are executed congruently with a style that nurtures motivation among the musicians in the ensemble (Boerner, et al., 2004). Petricic (2011) also offered support for the directive-charismatic leadership style for its incorporation of the characteristics of authority (knowledge of musicology and performance standards) and an ability to connect with ensemble members. Other literature supports the value of the charismatic leader. Followers are interested in charismatic and enthusiastic leaders (Armstrong & Armstrong, 1996). Their discussion of the importance of charisma in leadership behavior is within the context of a transformational leadership style. Others have also supported that charisma is a main component of the transformation leadership style (Boerner & Von Streit, 2005). Transformational leaders will be able to inspire with a vision that is meaningful and motivating to members because the vision will make use of the members' skills in a way that is cognizant of their capability and needs (Armstrong & Armstrong, 1996). Boerner and Gerbert (2012) also support this notion that transformational ensemble leaders will understand followers' needs and capabilities and incorporate them into the vision and mission of the group. This follower-focused leadership is an essential method for ensemble leaders to use. Although professional orchestras and choirs whose musicians are paid exist around the world, many more exist that are made up of non-paid members. Without monetary compensation as a motivator, the leaders of these ensembles need to find alternative means of motivation. Transformational-leader conductors form a meaningful vision for the musicians, motivating them and, combined with other transformational leadership behaviors, increasing ensemble member satisfaction with their experience and performance (Kammerhoff, et al., 2019). Rowald and Rohmann (2009) found similarly that more transformational leadership behavior correlates with more positive emotions among ensemble members and that transformational leadership yielded a higher rating of effectiveness than transactional leadership.ALiterature offers more connection to how conductors can be transformational leaders. Conductors should work with a servant-leader mindset to align their thinking and behavior with transformational leadership. Wis (2002) explains that conductors should not be managing the musicians as they execute the conductor’s vision to achieve their personal goals as an individual. Instead, the leadership style and behavior of the conductor should account for the musicians as individuals so goals can be set based on their specific capabilities. Considering the improvement, of individuals and the collective, rather than benchmarking against others, can be very beneficial. Matthews and Kitsantas (2013) researched the impacts of mastery-focused conductors (i.e., improvement) versus performance-focused conductors (i.e., normative). They found ensemble members feel more capable of achieving goals as individuals and as a collective when leadership focuses on improvement rather than meeting a benchmark. Above all else, The servant-leader conductor will ask what is in the best interest of ensemble members so all of them can grow and make the most of their capabilities. The conductor should use their leadership skills to help others improve their musical skills. The servant-leader is mindful of whom they lead to set a relevant course and establish a meaningful vision. Servant and Transformational Conductors Wis (2002) describes the servant-leader conductor. These individuals are motivated by a desire to serve others. They create visions for growth that account for the unknown future of the ensemble. Their responsiveness to musician needs includes an attitude of self-reflection. Trusting that others can perform and achieve goals creates an environment where accountability can exist. Servant-leader conductors use persuasion to help musicians understand the purpose of their efforts rather than coercing them with authoritative power. They will also have a strong character that is genuine, authentic, and consistent to demonstrate their reliability. Similarly, Armstrong and Armstrong (1996) characterized conductors as charismatic, enthusiastic, and affirming transformational leaders. The vision these conductors create is shared among the entire ensemble. They respect the value individuals bring to the group produce through the musicians’ capabilities. Consistent behavior models how others should behave and show musicians they are a leader who can be trusted. These conductors empower the musicians they lead and transform their experiences so the individuals and the collective can rise to their goals. Reviewing these two characterizations, commonalities can be identified. The servant- and transformational-leader conductor will leverage positive modeling to demonstrate their character. Their vision will be meaningful to ensemble members. By empowering members and allowing them to be active contributors, conductors trust the musicians’ ability to meaningfully contribute to achieving goals. Being persuasive shows the purposiveness of effort and values the work of ensemble members. Valuing the individual musician-level effort reinforces that normative quality is not the solitary goal but instead supports individual improvement and its contribution to achieving collective goals. Framework for Analysis Based on the synthesis of the description of transformational leadership by Armstrong & Armstrong (1996) with the description of servant leadership presented by Wis (2002), a framework can be created for the servant- and transformational-leader conductor. The critical points of synthesis will focus on vision, character, empowerment, persuasive transformation, and service. Interview questions were created to gather information related to each of these topics. Question 1: How do you create a vision that is meaningful to current and prospective musicians, considering the reality of variability and unknowns? This question was asked to gain an understanding of the ways meaningful and engaging visions are created by conductors. It was based on a leader’s role to balance forward-thinking and current realities. Question 2: How important is it that your musicians trust you? By understanding the importance of trust and its role for conductors, this question can reveal how leaders gain trust through their character and leverage it as part of the group’s work. Question 3: How do you empower musicians, as members of the group, to grow individually and contribute to the growth of the collective? Empowering members and allowing them to be active contributors demonstrates that conductors trust musicians' capability to contribute meaningfully to the group's achievements. Question 4: How do you orient and elevate the group toward common interests and goals? More oriented toward the transformative-leader behaviors of a conductor, this question was created to under whether persuasive techniques were used to showcase the purposiveness of efforts that contributed to achieving collective goals. Question 5: How do you serve all levels of musicians and value their contributions? Music ensembles can have a diverse spectrum of musician members, including their musical capability according to normative standards. Their contributions as part of the group are still valuable, and this question is asked to understand how conductors serve the needs of the variety of capabilities they work with. The analysis will look for trends in responses. All participant responses will be compared for each question. Any commonalities will be presented, as well as significant divergence. Methods This research will start to reveal what we can learn about leadership from music ensemble conductors by exploring how they are the servant and transformational leaders. To accomplish this, a purposive sample of conductors was interviewed to gather feedback. Collecting feedback directly from individuals doing this work provided a first-hand narrative about how specific actions support their leadership. The purposive sample consisted of conductors with whom I had personal connections (past work, academic studies, and church communities). A total of six conductors were interviewed. This qualitative research seeks to gather and interpret feedback, so the questions asked during the interviews were open-ended and intended to give respondents the freedom to articulate their thoughts without restrictions. Interviews were conducted one-on-one via synchronous audio/visual conferencing. Participants were asked the questions, and their responses were written down for future analysis. Results and Discussion The participants’ responses showed trends in ideas, perspectives, and behaviors. Participants will be referred to as Respondents A, B, C, D, E, and F for the discussion of their responses. Question 1 All participants focused on how vision aligns with membership, and there was a trend toward flexibility in vision creation. Respondents A and F explained how they approach the ensembles with plans for the program term with diverse offerings so they can appeal to as broad an audience of musicians as possible. This also enables them to see what resonates most with the group so they can follow that path to make the experience fulfilling for the musicians. Three others spoke about relying on the group members to contribute to vision creation. For Respondent B, this is achieved through exercises like having youth ensemble members put their reason for participation into a box or having discussions with adult ensembles about what the group wants to be seen as by current and prospective members and its audiences. Respondent D shared how relationship building allows them to learn where the group wants to go and sets the vision from there. This is important as the membership of their ensembles is significantly driven by word of mouth from members to the larger communities they are part of. Since the experiences and visions of current members attract new members, it is vital to include them in vision creation for the group overall. Respondent E also supported the idea that the vision should not come solely from the leader but should come from the group. Another emerging trend was the discussion of how vision attracts members aligned with the group's purpose. Respondent C reported that their vision is at the forefront of their ensemble and is communicated in the invitation to participate. This informs people of what they are getting involved with and reduces the risk of misunderstanding when they arrive at the first rehearsal. Similarly, Respondent E spoke about attracting members to help achieve the group goals. They have an emergent perspective of vision creation that is hopeful and looking ahead rather than reactive. Their work is transformative by ensuring the group’s vision attracts and serves its members. Across participants, there was a clear awareness of the interplay between vision and members. These conductors were cognizant of how the vision for the group influences membership and how membership should influence vision. Question 2 Every participant reported that trust was significant, with Respondent E having asserted that the musicians need to trust the work they are doing, not necessarily the conductor. Respondents A, B, and D spoke about how trust underpins musicians becoming comfortable, opening up, and participating fully. Respondent C reflected on experiences when they had not trusted conductors and said it was because of their ego. This is similar to Respondent E’s sentiment, as they feel a conductor needing the trust of the musicians in the ensemble is self-centric and not about the vision. Respondent C said they put the goals and vision of the ensemble at the forefront so members of the ensemble can be aware of their alignment with it. This also demonstrates the conductor's commitment to the vision and can gain the trust of musicians as they work toward goals. Multiple respondents shared two other specific behaviors for gaining trust and demonstrating character. First was organizing and providing clear instructions (Respondents A and F). They expressed how being consistent with these habits demonstrates how they are reliable. The other behavior mentioned by several respondents was modeling. Respondent A showed musicians how things work in the group and how certain things are done. Respondent B spoke about modeling continual learning. Respondent D spoke about modeling singing and other activities they ask musicians to do. Respondent E said they model behaviors like curiosity, vulnerability, ethics, professionalism, and others that serve the musicians in their work toward achieving the group vision. Question 3 The participants offered an array of responses. Respondent A outlined supporting musicians based on their individual needs. They surround singers who need help with more experienced musicians and identify those who might be overly reliant on more vital voices. This respondent also uses small breakout groups to create opportunities for musicians to self-assess how they are doing and what they can improve. When musicians become disengaged, they challenge themselves with new goals like memorization. Respondent B considers the “human and musician” aspects of the ensemble members. They balance an awareness of life’s baggage people carry with an expectation that musicians show up and give their best effort to the group’s work. If musicians do not show up, it changes the group and impacts the work it can do. Instilling a sense of importance and value when it comes to attendance is essential. Additionally, awareness of how people seem to be feeling when they walk into rehearsal can influence warm-up activities and other rehearsal decisions that can fulfill the needs of ensemble members. Respondents C and D spoke about the power they give directly to the musicians. While Respondent D involves musicians in decision-making to give them some direct ownership of the ensemble, Respondent C reminds musicians that they produce the product and gives them the power to practice, grow, and develop or not. A conductor of a community ensemble, without grades or money as an incentive, cannot force musicians to practice. Instead, they lightheartedly nudge musicians with comments during downtimes that it could be beneficial to practice something specific. Respondent E seeks the growing edges that all musicians have. They consider the common growth points the members have in common and approach those items comprehensively. This approach enables musicians to reflect on their limitations and be intentional about improvement. For Respondent F, it is essential to honor the individuals from their learner type to the opportunities they need to grow. They incorporate various techniques (e.g., visual, auditory, movement) in their lessons to satisfy different learning styles. Surveying musicians provide feedback about repertoire and artistic and social choices used for decision-making. Respondent D also gathers feedback from the ensemble members about choices related to repertoire and, in real-time, about artistic choices. Respondent F also offers opportunities for members to fill leadership roles on a volunteer basis to lead warm-up activities, sectional rehearsals, and ensemble social events. Reflecting on the previous academic year specifically, Respondent F spoke about the increase in technology used and how this created more opportunities to provide direct feedback to members as they were able to hear individual voices more quickly and could tailor instruction to be more specific to what a specific member needed support with. Although the responses were quite varied to this question, the respondents consistently articulated sentiments acknowledging that individual members' contributions make the ensemble what it is. Having an orientation toward the value and influence of individual contribution, and being intentional about addressing it, supports an opportunity for the growth of individual musicians and, thus, the groups as a whole. Question 4 The respondents all spoke about making the group's goals the central, constant focus of the work. Respondent C clearly said that the group's goal is music-making, and the whole activity needs to be focused on that. Everything the ensemble does needs to be to do the best they can with the music literature they are working on. Respondent B uses the core goal of the group when the group starts to slip or lose focus, reminding the ensemble of its intention. Respondent F puts this intention at the front of rehearsal by asking the ensemble what they think they must work on and incorporating that as a goal. Respondent A focuses on getting members excited about the goals. When goals are clear, such as performing specific work, this can be sharing recordings and celebrating progress. If the piece of music has other essential elements, like social messages, they will hear from people close to the cause and research the topic to learn about it more deeply. When the goal is unclear, this conductor will help the ensemble visualize the final product by going to the performance venue and singing through the entire program to see how everything fits together. Respondents D and E see the value of getting buy-in from members and value some concurrent leadership within the ensemble to support this. Respondent D has a hierarchy in their choirs through choral councils and officers who are leaders among peers. These individuals help relay the goals to others, serving as agents of vision and progress. Respondent E also spoke of leadership among peers. They see concentric circles of influence and leadership within the ensemble. Instead of roles as sectional or warm-up leaders, people fill the role of connecting with others. When musicians see others voluntarily giving their time and energy to the group, they buy into the group's work even more. This grassroots-type relational leadership within and among the musicians and conductor creates a more collective focus than an authoritative hierarchy with the conductor on top. A culture is created rooted in belonging and caring. Whether from the conductor directly or through agency within the ensemble, goals must be shared, and members must buy into them. None of the respondents settled on performing a piece of music and assumed it would work itself out. They all acknowledge the effort that needs to go into focusing on the goal and keeping musicians engaged with the goal. Question 5 Respondent A thinks making everyone feel valued is the joy of leading an ensemble. They identify and celebrate the moments when everyone participates and contributes to the ensemble’s achievement. To achieve this, it is essential to hold everyone to the same standards and expectations regarding participation, regardless of the normative quality of their contribution (a sentiment shared by Respondent D). Respondent E was clear about full participation and inclusion, saying they would never ask someone not to sing. Respondent C expressed the importance of appreciating the process of the ensemble’s work and valuing that. This conductor is process-focused rather than product-focused. For them, the experience is about moving each musician’s needle from point A to point B, progressing from where they started to where they are today. Respondent B also expects people to contribute as best they can. Furthermore, they actively work to combat any barriers, real or perceived, to participation. For example, if someone feels they cannot be part of an ensemble because they cannot read music, they are invited to a group where they can participate and learn simultaneously. If someone thinks their child is too young, they explain how that young child can benefit from being present in the space. Creating opportunities was common among other respondents, too. Creating small-group and solo opportunities where members can showcase their skills, develop more, or be challenged in different ways were ideas shared by respondents A, D, and F. Respondent A also offers more responsibility, such as section leadership, to members who are seeking and can benefit from growth in that way. Another method of opportunity creation is beyond the ensemble. For respondent E, this can mean suggesting auditioned ensembles in the area for musicians who want a music-making experience focused more on the quality of the final product. Another way of serving the diversity of musicians in the ensemble is through the repertoire. Respondents A and D start with a repertoire selection that will be a middle ground for the ensemble based on the general membership trends they expect. Then, they build around that with some music that will be comfortable for everyone and others that will progressively challenge more members. Respondent F tries to dismantle perceived hierarchies of music literature by incorporating music from different backgrounds and traditions equally, which gives members opportunities to be challenged or feel comfortable in ways they may not generally experience elsewhere. The respondents conveyed a message focused on achieving ensemble goals through full participation. Each conductor appreciates the ensemble musician's contributions and understands that development is a unique experience for everyone. By thinking about how to enable and maintain participation and contribute to the ongoing improvement of the individuals, the conductor is leading the group toward its achievements. Conclusion and Recommendations Conductors are leaders of musicians. The position they are in necessitates the use of leaderful practices to facilitate performance and achieve the group goal. As leaders, conductors set the course and support musicians as they use their skills to contribute to the collective work. Exploring the relationship between music conductors and ensembles reveals leadership behaviors in action that can augment the explanation of concepts and models presented to individuals studying leadership. This study demonstrates that we can investigate how conductors incorporate leaderful practices in their work. Furthermore, exploring how specific models, theories, and leadership concepts manifest in the music ensemble context is possible. The synthesized qualities of a servant and transformational leadership are supported by trends in behavior and mentality reported by the participating conductors in this study. We can look to music ensembles and conductors for ways to incorporate leadership behaviors for these two leader types, and they would likely offer us practical examples of other leadership behaviors in action. Limited by time, this project's scope was qualitative and reflected a small sample of conductors. Future research should explore the outcomes of ensembles when conductors intentionally include and exclude specific leadership behaviors. Modeling was a behavior expressed by every conductor who participated, and exploring the extent of this impact on ensemble members and performance could provide concrete support to incorporate this behavior in leadership. References Armstrong, S., & Armstrong, S. (1996). The Conductor as a Transformational Leader. Music Educators Journal, 82(6), 22–25. Boerner, S., & Gebert, D. (2012). Fostering artistic ensemble performance: Exploring the role of transformational leadership. Nonprofit Management & Leadership, 22(3), 347–365. https://doi.org/10.1002/nml.20058 Boerner, S., & Von Streit, C. F. (2005). Transformational Leadership and Group Climate--Empirical Results from Symphony Orchestras. 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The Role of the Conductor’s Goal Orientation and Use of Shared Performance Cues on Collegiate Instrumentalists’ Motivational Beliefs and Performance in Large Musical Ensembles. Psychology of Music, 41(5), 630–646. Petricic, S. (2011). Artistic quality as leadership success: The conductor’s leadership role in the act of music making. ENCATC Journal of Cultural Management and Policy, 1(1), 12-19. Rowold, J., & Rohmann, A. (2009). Relationships Between Leadership Styles and Followers’ Emotional Experience and Effectiveness in the Voluntary Sector. Nonprofit & Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 38(2), 270–286. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764008317304 Wis, R. M. (2002). The Conductor as Servant-Leader. Music Educators Journal, 89(2), 17. https://doi.org/10.2307/3399837 Zel, U., & Onay, M. (2012). Conductors As A Metaphor Of “Leadership.” International Journal of Contemporary Economics & Administrative Sciences, 2(3), 130–150.

Ty Gioacchini, August 2021

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