{"id":43,"date":"2019-08-19T15:19:21","date_gmt":"2019-08-19T15:19:21","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/introductiontogroupcommunicationv2\/chapter\/group-leadership\/"},"modified":"2023-03-24T14:46:00","modified_gmt":"2023-03-24T14:46:00","slug":"group-leadership","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/introductiontogroupcommunicationv2\/chapter\/group-leadership\/","title":{"raw":"Group Leadership","rendered":"Group Leadership"},"content":{"raw":"
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Management is doing things right; leadership is doing the right things.<\/p>\n

Peter Drucker, economist, management guru, author (1909\u20132005)<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n

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A good leader inspires others with confidence; a great leader inspires them with confidence in themselves.<\/p>\n

Unknown<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n

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Getting Started<\/h2>\n

Leadership in groups and organization can be an opportunity and a challenge. How we approach it can make all the difference. In this chapter we explore what leadership is, how we become leaders, the role of teamwork and interdependence in leadership, and finally diverse forms and representations of leadership in action.<\/p>\n

Leadership is a complicated and mysterious thing. Is it a behavior or set of actions? Is it a talent, that some are born with while others are not? Is it an ability to communicate clearly and effectively with contagious enthusiasm? These are some of the questions we\u2019ll address in this chapter but first let\u2019s be clear: There is no universal definition of leadership. Across cultures what we consider leadership varies greatly, and yet we know it when we see it. We are not born with it, but our experiences can influence our ability to act when the context demands action.<\/p>\n

Communication is learned, not innate, and how we learn to follow, and to lead, is a reflection of that process. We can learn to lead in more effective ways. We can solve new challenges in collaborative ways. We can respond to a crisis with skill and expertise, learned from drill and practice. We can make a difference in the groups in which we participate, as leaders or followers. In this chapter we explore the many fascinating aspects of leadership.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

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8.1<\/span> What is Leadership?<\/span><\/h2>\n
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Learning Objective<\/h3>\n
    \n \t
  1. Define and describe leadership.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n

    When you hear the word \u201cleadership\u201d what comes to mind? Is it Superman, with amazing abilities to overcome almost all obstacles combined with altruism and his concern for humanity? Is it Lara Croft, the fictional video game character who solves all her own problems and doesn\u2019t need anyone to save her as she is no \u201cdamsel in distress?\u201d Is it the action movie hero, alone against all odds, the rises from the ashes victorious? Is it the person who, observing that someone is choking and cannot breathes, performs the Heimlich maneuver, dislodging the obstruction and saving someone\u2019s life? Or finally, is the person who gets up every morning, helps others at their tasks and on their way, who juggles two jobs and more responsibilities than they can count, and still remains accessible, helpful, and caring day after day? You might answer all of the above and to a certain extent you would be correct, but we need to examine these distinct expressions of leadership to learn from each one.<\/p>\n

    Superman represents the ideal hero for some, with a combination of strength and virtue. Natural born leaders have been discussed, explored, and investigated time and time again across history. It was once thought that a leader was born, not made, but the evidence indicates otherwise. What makes a leader is complicated and not easy to define. Across cultures leadership is considered many things, and requires many different, if not opposing, behaviors. There is no universal standard, trait, or quality that makes a leader, but still people sometimes look to a strong leader to solve their problems. Some cultures have embraced a single person\u2019s leadership without checks or balances, like Stalin or Hitler, only to learn devastating lessons that cost millions of lives. There is no superman.<\/p>\n

    Therefore, what does make a leader? Is it a combination of talents (that you are born with) and skills (that you learn in life)? Ligon, Hunter, and Mumford Ligon, G.S., Hunter, S.T. & Mumford, M.D. (2008). Development of outstanding leadership: A life narrative approach. The Leadership Quarterly, 19<\/em> (3) 312\u2013334.<\/span> explore exceptional leaders in Development of outstanding leadership: A life narrative approach<\/em>. Their goal was to further understanding of how different childhood and young adult experiences may impact leadership, searching for identifiable patterns in predicting different types of leadership. Their conclusion may surprise you: what makes a leader<\/a><\/em><\/span> across contexts are individuals who, in the presence of a crisis or challenge, can formulate and implement a plan of action. Leadership<\/a><\/em><\/span>, therefore, is the ability to effectively formulate and implement a plan of action based on the context. The person who calls 911 when someone appears to have a heart attack has observed and assessed the situation, and creates a rational plan to address the current crisis. What might be normally considered a simple phone call, in this context, becomes of paramount importance. The ability to provide a location or street address, or describe observations, or even perform CPR while emergency services are in route are all examples of leadership in action. Even if the person doesn\u2019t know CPR, the act of asking people in the area if anyone knows CPR and can help is matching needs to skill sets, an important aspect of leadership. Leadership can be demonstrated in your own life or can involve teams and groups.<\/p>\n

    There is no universal definition of leadership. Across cultures what we consider leadership varies greatly, and yet we know it when we see it. We are not born with it, but our experiences can influence our ability to act when the context demands action. To state that leadership is a mystery is an understatement. We cannot define it, and yet we can recognize it. So we start to use terms to describe what we observe and arrive at a definition, and then try to explain it, predict it, and develop it.<\/p>\n

    Throughout history, many people have speculated about leadership and its nature. Howe,Howe, W. (1996). Leadership vistas: From the constraints of the behavioral sciences to emancipation through the humanities. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 3<\/em>(2), 32\u201369.<\/span> for example, proposes the field of leadership is too narrowly viewed and challenges to be open to leadership in its many forms. This complexity makes it difficult for researchers, authors, or philosophers to arrive at a common definition of leadership. The behavioral sciences have been the home of many of these investigations, but as the field grows, leadership itself is increasingly considered a cross-disciplinary concept.<\/p>\n

    The study of leadership began with the focus on control and hierarchy,House, R. J., & Aditya, R. N. (1997). The social scientific study of leadership: Quo vadis? Journal of Management, 23<\/em>(3), 409\u20134 73.<\/span> but that is changing. For example, [Mendenhall, Osland, Bird, Oddou, and Maxneyski Mendenhall, M., Osland, J., Bird, A., Oddou, G., & Mazneyski, M. (2008). Global leadership: Research, practice, and development<\/em>. New York: NY: Routledge.]<\/span> explored global leadership and attempted to define a universal leader. They observed a shift from hierarchal leadership (the boss tells you what to do and how to do it) to a more participatory leadership (the boss discusses the task with the team as they formulate a plan). The ancient view of global leadership was one of domination, commanding followers, and clear demonstrations of the power of a leader. This reflected a more of authoritarian style than a participative style of leadership that we observe today. According to Rajah, Song and Arvey, [Rajah, R., Song, Z. & Arvey, R., A., (2011). Emotionality and leadership: Taking stock of the past decade of research. Leadership Quarterly<\/em>, 22, 1107\u20131119.]<\/span> there is a current shift from the perceptive of a leaders\u2019 controlling perspective to one of the followers\u2019 participatory perspective. Across fields, leadership is increasing perceived as a dynamic relationship involving leader-follower behaviors. Today, issues such as diversity, gender, culture and ethics are increasingly considered relevant, even critical, elements of leadership. Day and Antonakis [Day, D., & Antonakis, J. (2012) The nature of leadership: Second edition<\/em>. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.]<\/span> suggest a new paradigm where leadership is, in fact, just starting to be understood as a hybrid approach that combines insights, frameworks, strategies, and approaches across disciplines.<\/p>\n

    As globalization increases and our interconnected world becomes smaller, there is a growing appreciation for the role of an effective leader in terms of vision, success, and overall organization effectiveness. Leaders are required to possess increasingly complex skill sets and are expected to effectively communicate with individuals, groups and teams, and within and between organizations. This gives rise to the central question: how best to prepare or develop effective leaders? Avolio, Walumbwa, & WeberAvolio, B., Walumbwa, F., & Weber, T. (2009) Leadership: Current Theories, Research, Future Direction Annual Review of Psychology 60 (2009), pp. 421\u2013449; doi: 10.1146\/annurev.psych.60.110707.16362<\/span> provide a developmental approach, conceptualizing authentic leadership as a pattern of leadership behavior that develops from a combination of positive psychological qualities and strong ethics. Avolio, Walumbwa, & WeberAvolio, B., Walumbwa, F., & Weber, T. (2009) Leadership: Current Theories, Research, Future Direction Annual Review of Psychology 60 (2009), pp. 421\u2013449; doi: 10.1146\/annurev.psych.60.110707.16362<\/span> also suggest that leadership is composed of four distinct but related components; self-awareness, internalized moral perspectives, balanced processing, and relational transparency.<\/p>\n

    We can observe that leadership has been investigated, and that it has many factors, but we are still challenged to fully answer our central question: what is leadership? We\u2019ll conclude with a term from the US Navy: deckplate leadership<\/a><\/em><\/span>. Get out of the office and get on the deckplates. It means that, in order to get the job done an effective leader has to be on the deck of the ship, interacting and learning what are the challenges, strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities present, emphasizing both task orientation with relationship. That takes initiative, self-motivation, skills, and talent, all elements of effective leadership. You, as a student, are taking charge of your education. As we proceed in our exploration of leadership remember to get up, get out, and see the many examples of leadership all around you.<\/p>\n\n

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    Key Takeaway<\/h3>\n

    Leadership traits, situational leadership, functional leadership, and transformative leadership comprise four key approaches to leadership theory.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n

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    Exercises<\/h3>\n
      \n \t
    1. What has been your experience to date as a leader? Discuss your thoughts with classmates.<\/li>\n \t
    2. Describe a leader that you know or have known in the past that you perceived as skilled or effective. How did they act and what did they do that was inspirational? Write a 2\u20133 paragraph discussion of your experience and share it with a classmate.<\/li>\n \t
    3. Think of a leader you were challenged to follow or perceived as ineffective. What did they do or say that was ineffective? How would you characterize this leader\u2019s style (use descriptive terms) and why? Please share your observations with your classmates.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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      8.2<\/span> Leadership Theories<\/span><\/h2>\n
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      Learning Objective<\/h3>\n
        \n \t
      1. Define and describe traits, situational, context-based, and transformative leadership theories.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n

        There are many perspectives on leadership, but they generally fall into four main categories: leadership traits, situational or context-based leadership, functional leadership, and transformational leadership. Let\u2019s examine each in turn.<\/p>\n

        The first approach we\u2019ll consider is the oldest of all: universal leadership traits<\/a><\/em><\/span>, or the view that there are inherent traits, that may be part of a person from birth as in talents, or acquired skills that express those in-born traits, that are somehow universal or constant across contexts and cultures. It is a significant challenge to even begin to consider the many contexts where leadership might be displayed, and so instead of focusing on the context, in this view we focus on the individual and his or her traits. Some studiesBass, B. (1981). Traits of Leadership: A follow-up to 1970. In R.M. Stogdill (ed.), Handbook of Leadership<\/em>. New York: Free Press, pp. 73\u201396.<\/span>,<\/sup> Baker, D. (1990). A qualitative and quantitative analysis of verbal style and the elimination of potential leaders in small groups. Small Group Research<\/em>, 38, pp. 13\u201326.<\/span> have indicated that people in leadership possess the following ten traits as shown in Table 8.1 \"Universal Leadership Traits\".<\/p>\n\n

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        Table 8.1<\/span> Universal Leadership Traits<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
        <\/th>\nTrait<\/th>\nExplanation<\/th>\nExample<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
        1<\/td>\nAchievement Orientation<\/td>\nA clear focus on achievement<\/td>\nShe consistently makes time in her busy schedule for her school work. She is focused on completing her degree.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        2<\/td>\nAdaptability<\/td>\nThe ability to adapt to the context, including constraints or resources, to be successful<\/td>\nShe understands the challenges of running a household and raising children on a budget, and still makes her studies a priority.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        3<\/td>\nEnergy<\/td>\nThe ability to devote time, concentration, and effort to a challenge<\/td>\nEven though she is tired in the evening she makes time, after the children have gone to bed, to complete her studies each night.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        4<\/td>\nIntelligence<\/td>\nThe ability to perceive, understand, formulate a response to, and implement a plan of action to solve a challenge<\/td>\nThere are never enough hours in the day, but she understands the challenges, sets priorities, and consistently gets the job done.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        5<\/td>\nInnovation<\/td>\nThe ability to perceive alternate plans of action to achieve similar or improved results<\/td>\nShe understands the challenge and finds a faster, more efficient way to get the job done.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        6<\/td>\nPersistence<\/td>\nThe ability to persevere, or to stick with a challenge until it is solved.<\/td>\nShe consistently completes her work on time, has completed all of her classes to date successfully, and is on track to graduate as planned.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        7<\/td>\nResponsibility<\/td>\nThe ability to respond and the awareness of duty, obligation, or commitment to solve a challenge<\/td>\nShe knows she has the ability to respond to the many challenges, recognizes the importance of a university degree to herself and her children, and completed her obligations.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        8<\/td>\nSelf-confidence<\/td>\nThe confidence in one\u2019s ability to solve a challenge<\/td>\nShe knows she can do it.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        9<\/td>\nSociability<\/td>\nThe ability to interact with others effectively<\/td>\nShe can work in groups effectively, even with challenging members.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        10<\/td>\nVerbal Communication Ability<\/td>\nThe ability to articulate effectively, or express one\u2019s thoughts, ideas, or opinions in ways that others can understand them with minimal or no miscommunication<\/td>\nShe can express herself effectively. People understand her when she speaks.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n

        As we review these terms we can observe many of them in ourselves and others in daily life. Are leaders those who possess all ten traits? Are these ten traits the only traits that represent leadership? No on both counts. Leaders may possess or exhibit some or all of these traits, but not all the time in every context. In addition, what we consider leadership in one context might be considered insubordination in another. Cultures vary as to their expectations for leaders and what traits they must possess, and we learn culture from each other. We are not born with it. We learn to communicate from and with each other. We are not built with an innate ability to communicate and our surroundings, including those who model behaviors for us, influence how we communicate with ourselves and others. If we are raised in a community where people take responsibility for their challenges and work together to solve them, we are more likely to model that behavior. If we are raised in a community that looks to an institution or an individual to solve problems for them, we are more likely to expect our problems to be solved for us. Since we can see that our environment influences our communication, our culture, and these traits, let\u2019s examine alternatives as we continue to explore the concept of leadership.<\/p>\n

        Our second approach to leadership shifts the focus or attention from the individual to the context, or situation. As we discussed previously, this makes for a significant challenge. How can we assess the myriad of situation factors at any given moment in time? In reality we cannot, but we can make the concerted effort to limit the factors we consider and explore the influence of context on our behaviors, including those associated with leadership within a specific cultural framework.<\/p>\n

        Situational leadership<\/a><\/em><\/span>, or leadership in context, means that leadership itself depends on the situation at hand. In sharp contrast to the \u201cnatural born leader,\u201d \u201cuniversal leadership traits\u201d model of leadership we previously discussed, this viewpoint is relativist. Leadership is relative, or varies, based on the context. There is no one \u201cuniversal trait\u201d to which we can point or principle to which we can observe in action. There is no style of leadership that is more or less effective than another unless we consider the context. Then our challenge presents itself: how to match the most effective leadership strategy with the current context?<\/p>\n

        In order to match leadership strategies and context we first need to discuss the range of strategies as well as the range of contexts. While the strategies list may not be as long as we might imagine, the context list could go on forever. If we were able to accurately describe each context, and discuss each factor, we would quickly find the task led to more questions, more information, and the complexity would increase, making an accurate description or discussion impossible. Instead, we can focus our efforts on factors that each context contains and look for patterns, or common trends, that help us make generalizations about our observations.<\/p>\n

        For example, an emergency situation may require a leader to be direct, giving specific order to each person. Since each second counts the quick thinking and actions at the direction of a leader may be the most effective strategy. To stop and discuss, vote, or check everyone\u2019s feelings on the current emergency situation may waste valuable time. That same approach applied to common governance or law-making may indicate a dictator is in charge, and that individuals and their vote are of no consequence. Instead an effective leader in a democratic process may ask questions, gather view points, and seek common ground as lawmakers craft a law that applies to everyone equally.<\/p>\n

        Hersey and Blanchard Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1977). Management of Organizational Behavior 3rd Edition\u2014Utilizing Human Resources<\/em>. New Jersey\/Prentice Hall.<\/span> take the situational framework and apply to an organizational perspective that reflects our emphasis on group communication. They assert that, in order to be an effective manager, one needs to change their leadership style based on the context, including the maturity of the people they are leading and the task details. Hersey and Blanchard Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1977). Management of Organizational Behavior 3rd Edition\u2014Utilizing Human Resources<\/em>. New Jersey\/Prentice Hall.<\/span> focus on two key issues: tasks and relationships, and present the idea that we can to a greater or lesser degree focus on one or the other to achieve effective leadership in a given context. They offer four distinct leadership styles or strategies (abbreviated with an \u201cS\u201d):<\/p>\n\n

          \n \t
        1. Telling (S1).<\/strong> Leaders tell people what to do and how to do it.<\/li>\n \t
        2. Selling (S2).<\/strong> Leaders provide direction, information, and guidance, but sell their message to gain compliance among group members.<\/li>\n \t
        3. Participating (S3).<\/strong> Leaders focus on the relationships with group members and shares decision-making responsibilities with them.<\/li>\n \t
        4. Delegating (S4).<\/strong> Leaders focus on relationships, rely on professional expertise or group member skills, and monitor progress. They allow group members to more directly responsible for individual decisions but may still participate in the process.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

          Telling and selling strategies are all about getting the task done. Participating and delegating styles are about developing relationships and empowering group members to get the job done. Each style or approach is best suited, according to Hersey and Blanchard,Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1977). Management of Organizational Behavior 3rd Edition\u2014Utilizing Human Resources<\/em>. New Jersey\/Prentice Hall.<\/span> to a specific context. Again, assessing a context can be a challenging task but they indicate the focus should be on the maturity of the group members. It is a responsibility of the leader to assess the group members and the degree to which they possess the maturity to work independently or together effective, including whether they have the right combination of skills and abilities that the task requires. Once again, they offer us four distinct levels (abbreviated with \u201cM\u201d for maturity):<\/p>\n\n

            \n \t
          1. M1, or level one.<\/strong> This is the most basic level where group members lack the skills, prior knowledge, skills, or self-confidence to accomplish the task effectively. They need specific directions, and systems of rewards and punishment (for failure) may be featured. They will need external motivation from the leader to accomplish the task.<\/li>\n \t
          2. M2, or level two.<\/strong> At this level the group members may possess the motivation, or the skills and abilities, but not both. They may need specific, additional instructions or may require external motivation to accomplish the task.<\/li>\n \t
          3. M3, or level three.<\/strong> In this level we can observe group members who are ready to accomplish the task, are willing to participate, but may lack confidence or direct experience, requiring external reinforcement and some supervision.<\/li>\n \t
          4. M4, or level four.<\/strong> Finally we can observe group members that are ready, prepared, willing, and confident in their ability to solve the challenge or complete the task. They require little supervision.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            Now it is our task to match the style or leadership strategy to the maturity level of the group members as shown in Table 8.2 \"Situational Leadership: Leadership Style and Maturity Level\".<\/p>\n\n

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            Table 8.2<\/span> Situational Leadership: Leadership Style and Maturity Level<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
            <\/th>\nLeadership Style (S)<\/th>\nMaturity Level (M)<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
            1<\/td>\nS1<\/td>\nM1<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            2<\/td>\nS2<\/td>\nM2<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            3<\/td>\nS3<\/td>\nM3<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            4<\/td>\nS4<\/td>\nM4<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n

            This is one approach to situational leadership that applies to our exploration of group communication, but it doesn\u2019t represent all approaches. What other factors might you consider other than style and maturity? How might we assess diversity, for example, in this approach? We might have a skilled professional who speaks English as their second language, and who comes from a culture where constant supervision is viewed as controlling or domineering, and if a leader takes a S1 approach to provide leadership, we can anticipate miscommunication and even frustration. There is no \u201cOne Size Fits All\u201d leadership approach that works for every context, but the situational leadership viewpoint reminds us of the importance of being in the moment and assessing our surroundings, including our group members and their relative strengths and areas of emerging skill. The effective group communicator recognizes the Hersey-Blanchard Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1977). Management of Organizational Behavior 3rd Edition\u2014Utilizing Human Resources<\/em>. New Jersey\/Prentice Hall.<\/span> approach provides insight and possible solutions to consider, but also keeps the complexity of the context in mind when considering a course of action.<\/p>\n

            Our third approach to consider is called functional leadership<\/a><\/em><\/span>, or leadership that focused on behaviors that address needs and help the group achieve its goals. Hackman, J. R., & Walton, R. E. (1986). Leading groups in organizations. In P. S. Goodman (Ed.), Designing effective work groups (pp. 72\u2013119). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.<\/span>,<\/sup> McGrath, J. E. (1962). Leadership behavior: Some requirements for leadership training. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Civil Service Commission.<\/span>,<\/sup> Adair, J. (1988). Effective Leadership. London. Pan Books.<\/span>,<\/sup> Kouzes, J. M. and Posner, B. Z. (2002). The leadership challenge<\/em>. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.<\/span> The leader needs to assess needs, including task, team, and individual group member needs. Balance and performance are emphasized, and the time the leader spends on a specific approach varies based on their assessment of the area of need. The highest priority is completion of the task in this approach, but it is balanced against team and individual group member needs. Each activity or approach targets each area of need, and the leader focuses on it emphasize the area, alternating their time on any given activity based on the existing needs.<\/p>\n\n

            \n

            Table 8.3<\/span> Functional Leadership<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
            <\/th>\nTask Need<\/th>\nTeam Need<\/th>\nIndividual Need<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
            1<\/td>\nAssessing the situation<\/td>\nTraining<\/td>\nTraining and Coaching<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            2<\/td>\nUnderstanding the task<\/td>\nBuilding team spirit<\/td>\nRecognizing individual skills and abilities; leveraging them on the task<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            3<\/td>\nPreparing the plan to address the task<\/td>\nFocus on the mission; sense of purpose<\/td>\nFocus on the mission; sense of purpose<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            4<\/td>\nImplementing the plan addressing the task<\/td>\nMotivation, praise, and rewards<\/td>\nMotivation, praise, and rewards<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            5<\/td>\nAllocating time and resources to the task<\/td>\nFocus on the tempo or pace of performance<\/td>\nFostering interdependence while respecting individual performance, including roles and tasks<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            6<\/td>\nRe-evaluating the plan and making adjustments<\/td>\nStatus recognition or performance acknowledgement<\/td>\nStatus recognition or performance acknowledgement<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            7<\/td>\nUnderstanding Quality Standards<\/td>\nDiscipline, including sanctions and punishment<\/td>\nAttending to personal problems<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            8<\/td>\nQuality control<\/td>\nQuality Control<\/td>\nIndividual output<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            9<\/td>\nEvaluating outcomes<\/td>\nRedirection, review of the action plan<\/td>\nIndividual role and task review<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            10<\/td>\nSharing the outcomes (Communication)<\/td>\nFacilitating group interactions (Communication)<\/td>\nIndividual interaction (Communication)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n

            As we can see in Table 8.3 \"Functional Leadership\", the functional leader focuses on the short and long term needs of the group. If the group is lost, perhaps time invested in re-evaluating the plan and making adjustments, meeting a task and a team need at the same time, might prove effective. If an individual group member is struggling, perhaps supportive coaching and even additional training might yield results. Based on the leader\u2019s assessment of the needs, they will select the appropriate action and maintain a priority order. They will also be constantly attuned to change, ready to adapt and meet the ever-changing needs of the task, team, or individual.<\/p>\n

            Our final approach to consider, called transformational leadership<\/a><\/em><\/span>, emphasizes the vision, mission, motivations, and goals of a group or team and motivates them to accomplish the task or achieve the result. This model of leadership asserts that people will follow a person who inspires them, who clearly communicates their vision with passion, and helps get things done with energy and enthusiasm.<\/p>\n

            James MacGregor Burns, a presidential biographer, first introduced the concept, discussing the dynamic relationship between the leader and the followers, as they together motivate and advance towards the goal or objective.Burns, J. (1978). Leadership<\/em>. New York: Harper and Row.<\/span> Bernard Bass Bass, B. (1985). Leadership and Performance<\/em>. New York: Free Press.<\/span> contributed to his theory, suggesting there are four key components of transformation leadership, as shown in Table 8.4 \"Four Key Components of Transformational Leadership\".<\/p>\n\n

            \n

            Table 8.4<\/span> Four Key Components of Transformational Leadership<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
            <\/th>\nComponent of Transformational Leadership<\/th>\nExplanation<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
            1<\/td>\nIntellectual Stimulation<\/td>\nTransformational leaders encourage creativity and ingenuity, challenging the status quo and encouraging followers to explore new approaches and opportunities.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            2<\/td>\nIndividualized Consideration<\/td>\nTransformational Leaders recognize and celebrate each follower\u2019s unique contributions to the group.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            3<\/td>\nInspirational Motivation<\/td>\nTransformational Leaders communicate a clear vision, helping followers understand the individual steps necessary to accomplish the task or objective while sharing in the anticipation of completion.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            4<\/td>\nIdealized Influence<\/td>\nTransformational Leaders serve as role models, demonstrating expertise, skills, and talent that others seek to emulate, inspiring positive actions while reinforcing trust and respect.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n

            The leader conveys the group\u2019s goals and aspirations, displays passion for the challenge that lies ahead, and demonstrates a contagious enthusiasm that motivates group members to succeed. This approach focuses on the positive changes that need to occur in order for the group to be successful, and requires the leader to be energetic and involved with the process, even helping individual members complete their respective roles or tasks.<\/p>\n

            In this section we have discussed leadership traits, situational leadership, functional leadership, and finally transformative leadership theories. We can recognize that there are no universal traits associated with leadership, but there are traits that are associated with it that we develop across time through our experiences. We can also recognize that the context or situation makes a significant impact on leadership, and matching the situation to the leadership approach requires skill and expertise. Every challenge is unique in some way, and the effective leader can recognize that aligning their actions and support with the needs of the group makes sense. The functional perspective requires a leader to assess task needs, group needs, and individual needs, and then devote time, energy, and resources to them in priority order. Finally, a transformative leadership approach involves an articulate leader with a clear vision that is shared with energy and enthusiasm with followers, encouraging them to embrace the steps required as well as the end goal, objective, or mission result. Each approach offers us a viewpoint to consider as we approach leadership in teams, and all serve as important insights into how to better lead an effective group.<\/p>\n\n

            \n

            Key Takeaway<\/h3>\n

            Leadership traits, situational leadership, functional leadership, and transformative leadership comprise four key approaches to leadership theory.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n

            \n

            Exercises<\/h3>\n
              \n \t
            1. Do you think natural leaders exist? Why or why not? Discuss your thoughts with classmates.<\/li>\n \t
            2. Describe a transformative leader that you know or have known in the past. How did they act and what did they do that was inspirational? Write a 2\u20133 paragraph discussion of your experience and share it with a classmate.<\/li>\n \t
            3. Think of a leader you admire and respect. Which approach do they best represent (traits, situational, functional, or transformative) and why? How would you characterize this leader\u2019s style and why? Please share your observations with your classmates.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
              \n

              8.3<\/span> Becoming a Leader<\/span><\/h2>\n
              \n

              Learning Objective<\/h3>\n
                \n \t
              1. Describe three ways group members become leaders.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n

                Whether or not there is a \u201cnatural leader,\u201d born with a combination of talents and traits that enable a person to lead others, has been a subject of debate across time. In a modern context, we have come to recognize that leadership comes in many form and representations. Once it was thought that someone with presence of mind, innate intelligence, and an engaging personality was destined for leadership, but modern research and experience shows us otherwise. Just as a successful heart surgeon has a series of skill sets, so does a dynamic leader. A television producer must both direct and provide space for talent to create, balancing control with confidence and trust. This awareness of various leadership styles serves our discussion as groups and teams often have leaders, and they may not always be the person who holds the title, status, or role.<\/p>\n

                Leaders take on the role because they are appointed, elected, or emerge into the role. The group members play an important role in this process. An appointed leader<\/a><\/em><\/span> is designated by an authority to serve in that capacity, irrespective of the thoughts or wishes of the group. They may serve as the leader and accomplish all the designated tasks, but if the group does not accept their role as leader, it can prove to be a challenge. As Tuckman Tuckman, B. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63<\/em>, 384\u2013399.<\/span> notes, \u201cstorming\u201d occurs as group members come to know each other and communicate more freely, and an appointed leader who lacks the endorsement of the group may experience challenges to his or her authority.<\/p>\n

                A democratic leader<\/a><\/em><\/span> is elected or chosen by the group, but may also face serious challenges. If individual group members or constituent groups feel neglected or ignored, they may assert that the democratic leader does not represent their interests. The democratic leader involves the group in the decision-making process, and insures group ownership of the resulting decisions and actions as a result. Open and free discussions are representative of this process, and the democratic leader acknowledges this diversity of opinion.<\/p>\n

                An emergent leader<\/a><\/em><\/span> contrasts the first two paths to the role by growing into the role, often out of necessity. The appointed leader may know little about the topic or content, and group members will naturally look to the senior member with the most experience for leadership. If the democratic leader fails to bring the group together, or does not represent the whole group, subgroups may form, each with an informal leader serving as spokesperson.<\/p>\n

                So if we take for granted that you have been elected, appointed, or emerged as a leader in a group or team you may be interested in learning a bit about how to lead. While we\u2019ve discussed several theories on what makes a leader, and even examined several common approaches, we still need to answer the all-important question: how does one become an effective leader? There is no easy answer, but we will also take for granted that you recognize that a title, a badge, or a corner office does not make one an effective leader. Just because the boss says you are the leader of your work group doesn\u2019t mean those members of the work group regard you as a leader, look to you to solve problems, or rely on you to inform, persuade, motivate, or promote group success.<\/p>\n

                \u201cResearch on leadership indicates that 50\u201375% of organizations are currently managed by people sorely lacking in leadership competence.Hogan, R. (2003). Leadership in Organizations<\/em>. Paper presented at The Second International Positive Psychology Summit, Washington, D.C. October 2\u20135.<\/span> They are hired or promoted based on technical competence, business knowledge and politics\u2014not on leadership skill. Such managers often manage by crisis, are poor communicators, are insensitive to moral issues, are mistrustful, over-controlling and micro-managing, fail to follow through on commitments they\u2019ve made and are easily excitable and explosive. The result is low morale, alienated employees, and costly attrition.Ostrow, E. (2008). 20 ways to become an effective leader<\/em>. Retrieved on September 9, 2012 at: http:\/\/www.emergingleader.com\/article31.shtml<\/span><\/p>\n

                Deckplate leadership is a US Navy approach to leadership that is applied and practical, and effectively serves our discussion. It means you need to get out of the office and get on the deckplates, the deck of the ship, or where the action is occurring. If you are in manufacturing it might be on the assembly line floor. If you are in sales, it might mean out where sales actually occur. Deckplate leadership means that, in order to get the job done an effective leader has to be on the deck of the ship, interacting and learning what are the challenges, strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities present, emphasizing both task orientation with relationship. Jeff Wuorio, Wuorio, J. (2011). 8 tips for becoming a true leader. Microsoft Business for Small and Midsize Companies. Retrieved on September 9, 2012 from: https:\/\/www.microsoft.com\/business\/en-us\/resources\/management\/leadership-training\/8-tips-for-becoming-a-true-leader.aspx?fbid=L-7CgraXG7d<\/span> of Microsoft Business for Small and Midsize Companies, offers an excellent list of suggestions, attributes, on how to become an effective leader that we\u2019ve adapted in Table 8.5 \"How to Become an Effective Leader\".<\/p>\n\n

                \n

                Table 8.5<\/span> How to Become an Effective Leader<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
                <\/th>\nAttributes<\/th>\nExplanation<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
                1<\/td>\nReal leadership means leading yourself<\/td>\nThis is where it all starts. People respect you when you respect yourself, and one way to address this attribute is to meet your personal goals. Get up early, learn the skills and procedures, and be the meaningful, contributing member of a team or group. People will naturally look to you for solutions when your self-discipline combined with your skills allows them to accomplish their tasks or goals.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                2<\/td>\nNo dictators allowed.<\/td>\nSitting on a throne will not improve your leadership skills, gain you new, useful information, or develop you as a leader. Get on the deckplate, the assembly line floor, our out with the customer service representative to learn what is happening right now and be a resource for team members to solve problems.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                3<\/td>\nBe open to new ways of doing things.<\/td>\nOne size does not fit all. What motivates one team member may not motivate the rest. You will need to be open to new approaches to achieve similar, or improved, results. The status quo, or the way we have always done it, is not an effective approach to produce improvements. While we may want to stick with what works, we have to keep in mind that as conditions and contexts change, those who adapt, thrive. Those who do not adapt become obsolete.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                4<\/td>\nValue diversity<\/td>\nDiversity in its many forms means more than race, gender, or even class distinctions. It means diverse perspectives that bring unique and often promising approaches to a challenge. Take advantage of this important aspect of teams and groups to produce outstanding results for everyone.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                5<\/td>\nEstablish and display a genuine sense of commitment.<\/td>\nTo be an effective leader you need to be committed to the mission, vision, or goal, and you need to display it clearly, communicating contagious enthusiasm and energy to team or group members. Slogans and programs that lack commitment will only be seen as meaningless, empty words. Bring the vision to life in action and deed.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                6<\/td>\nBe results oriented<\/td>\nStephen Covey (1989)Covey, Stephen R. (1989) \"The 7 Habits of Highly Successful People.\" New York: Fireside<\/span> promotes the approach of \u201cbegin with the end in mind\u201d and here it clearly applies. We need to achieve results, and celebrate incremental steps towards the goal, in order to achieve it. As a leader you have to be results-oriented in today\u2019s world, and be engaged with the process to observe, and highlight, incremental gains.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                7<\/td>\nDemonstrate genuine appreciation<\/td>\nA slap on the back or a handshake can be meaningful, but it is often not enough to celebrate success or motivate team members. Know your team well enough to know how each member prefers recognition and communicate it with respect. Your genuine efforts to acknowledge incremental progress will help your group members stay engaged, and help address fatigue or attrition.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                8<\/td>\nRemember that leaders learn<\/td>\nOnce you have it all figured our it is time to recognize that you\u2019ve lost your way. Contexts and conditions are constantly changing, and as in any dynamic system, so are we. If you are not renewing as a leader, learning new skills that can make a positive difference, then you become stale, detached, and obsolete. Change is an ever-present part of group dynamics.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                9<\/td>\nAn effective leader has, and shares, a plan<\/td>\nA plan of action, clearly communicated and embraced by team members, can make all the difference. Being proactive means the leader needs to identify potential problems before they happen and providing solutions before they escalate into a crisis. Being reactive means addressing the challenge after it is already an issue, hardly an effective plan. While the ability to respond to an emergency is key, the effective leader anticipates challenges, and shares that awareness and understanding with team members.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                10<\/td>\nLeaders know roles and responsibilities, and share them with the team<\/td>\nAn effective leader knows team members, their roles and responsibilities, and shares them with the group, promoting interdependence and peer recognition while remaining alert to the need for individual coaching, training, or reinforcement.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n

                As we consider these attributes we can see the importance of communication throughout each one. The effective leader is engaged, practices active listening, and is open to learn as well as to instruct, coach, or cheer.<\/p>\n\n

                \n

                Developing Virtual Leadership<\/h2>\n

                In order to be most effective, groups or teams need a sense of community. A community<\/a><\/em><\/span> can be defined as a physical or virtual space where people seeking interaction and shared interest come together to pursue their mutual goals, objectives, and shared values.Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in Cyberspace: Effective strategies for the online classroom<\/em>. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.<\/span> For our purposes, the setting or space can be anywhere, at any time, but includes group or team members and, as you might have guessed, a leader. The need for clear expectations is key to the effective community, and it is never more true than in an online environment where asynchronous communication is the norm and physical interaction is limited or non-existent. Increasingly we manage teams from a distance, outsource services to professionals across the country, and interact across video and voice chats on a daily basis. The effective leader understands this and leverages the tools and technology to maximize group and team performance.<\/p>\n

                Through interaction in groups and teams, we meet many of our basic human needs, including the need to feel included, and the need for love and appreciation.Shutz, W. (1966). The Interpersonal Underworld<\/em>. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books, pp. 13\u201320.<\/span> From the opening post, welcome letter, or virtual meeting, the need to perceive acknowledgement and belonging is present, and the degree to which we can reinforce these messages will contribute to higher levels of interaction, better engagement across the project, retention throughout the mission, and successful completion of the goal or task. Online communities can have a positive effect by reducing the group member\u2019s feeling of isolation through extending leader-to-team member and team member-to-team member interaction. Fostering and developing a positive group sense of community is a challenge, but the effective leader recognizes it as an important, if not critical, element of success.<\/p>\n

                Given the diversity of our teams and groups, there are many ways to design and implement task-oriented communities. Across this diversity, communication and the importance of positive interactions in each group is common ground. The following are five \u201cbest practices\u201d for developing an effective online community as part of a support and interaction system for your team or group:<\/p>\n\n

                  \n \t
                1. \n

                  Clear expectations<\/p>\n

                  The plan is the central guiding document for your project. It outlines the project information, expectations, deadlines, and often how communication will occur in the group. Much like a syllabus guides a course, a plan of action, from a business plan to a marketing plan, can serve as an important map for group or team members. With key benchmarks, quality standards, and proactive words of caution on anticipated challenges, the plan of action can be an important resource that contributes to team success.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n \t

                2. \n

                  Effective organization<\/p>\n

                  Organization may first bring to mind the tasks, roles, and job assignments and their respective directions but consider: Where do we interact? What are the resources available? When do we collaborate? All these questions should be clearly spelled out to help team members know when and where to communicate.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n \t

                3. \n

                  Prompt and meaningful responses<\/p>\n

                  Effective leaders are prompt. They understand that when Germans are waking up, the Chinese are tucking their children into bed. They know when people will be available and juggle time zones and contact information with ease. Same day responses to team members is often the norm, and if you anticipate longer periods of time before responding, consider a brief email or text to that effect. The online community is fragile and requires a leader to help facilitate effective communication.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n \t

                4. \n

                  A positive tone in interaction and feedback<\/p>\n

                  Constructive criticism will no doubt be a part of your communication with team members, but by demonstrating respect, offering praise as well as criticism, and by communicating in a positive tone, you\u2019ll be contributing to a positive community. One simple rule of thumb is to offer two comments of praise for every one of criticism. Of course you may adapt your message for your own needs, but as we\u2019ve discussed previously, trust is the foundation of the relationship and the student needs to perceive you are supportive of their success.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n

                  \n

                  How Do I Build an Effective Online Team?<\/h2>\n

                  In order for people to perceive a sense of community or feel like they belong to a team, they need group socialization. Group socialization<\/a><\/em><\/span> is the development of interpersonal relationships within a group context. Group success is built on the foundation of the relationships that form as a part of group development. You can emphasize activities and environments that create a supportive group climate, paying attention to relationship messages as well as content messages. Palloff and Pratt Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in Cyberspace: Effective strategies for the online classroom<\/em>. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.<\/span> recommend seven steps for building a successful team.<\/p>\n\n