{"id":74,"date":"2020-12-16T16:12:15","date_gmt":"2020-12-16T16:12:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edu606701\/chapter\/delivering-instruction\/"},"modified":"2023-05-17T12:16:04","modified_gmt":"2023-05-17T12:16:04","slug":"delivering-instruction","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/chapter\/delivering-instruction\/","title":{"raw":"Delivering Instruction","rendered":"Delivering Instruction"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>Delivering Instruction<\/h2>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-73 size-full\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/files\/2020\/07\/delivering-instruction-1.jpg\" alt=\"Classroom setting with a teacher in front of the class\" width=\"640\" height=\"426\" \/>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 1rem\">Table of Contents<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Structuring<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Focusing Attention<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Activating Prior Knowledge<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Anticipating Preconceptions of Students<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Modeling<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Coaching<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Establishing Accountability<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Providing Opportunities for Practice<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Guided Practice Independent Practice and Homework<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Motivating Learners<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Fading<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Providing Independent Practice That Promotes Transfer of Learning<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Delivering Instruction.\u00a0<strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Nicole Arduini-Van Hoose.\u00a0<strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Hudson Valley Community College.\u00a0<strong>Located at<\/strong>:\u00a0.\u00a0<strong>License<\/strong>:\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nYou learned about the importance of specifying goals and objectives for your learners. We discussed how objectives specify what students are expected to do to demonstrate learning.\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">There is another important use for goals and objectives: they can determine your choice of instructional methods. Simply stated, instructional methods are patterns of practice that recur in classrooms time and again. They include, for example, the methods of direct (or didactic) instruction, indirect (or inquiry) instruction, and self-directed (or self-regulated) instruction.\u00a0Each of these general methods includes certain specific teaching skills, among which are\u00a0structuring, modeling, coaching, and fading.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">For instance, if your objective is to have students acquire facts (for example, names and\u00a0dates of battles of the Civil War), rules (for forming possessives), or action sequences (for\u00a0focusing a microscope), you will most likely use direct instruction, which involves some\u00a0questioning, clarifying, and explaining. But if your objective is to teach concepts (for\u00a0example, photosynthesis), patterns (global warming), or abstractions (environmental\u00a0responsibility), you will most likely use indirect instruction, which involves constructivist\u00a0teaching methods. If, however, your objective is to teach strategies for\u00a0learning (for example, a model for learning to solve equations that can be used time and\u00a0again), you will most likely adopt the method of self-directed instruction, which\u00a0incorporates the skills of metacognition (thinking about thinking), subvocal rehearsal, guided\u00a0practice, and self-evaluation.<\/p>\r\nRegardless of the instructional\u00a0method you are using, you will want to be familiar with structuring, modeling, coaching, and\u00a0fading.\u00a0In the next section, we will study the teaching skills of structuring, modeling,\u00a0coaching, and fading. We will demonstrate how successful teachers use these skills to capture\u00a0student attention, convey purpose, communicate information, keep lessons moving at a brisk\u00a0and lively pace, and provide opportunities for transferring what has been learned to new and\u00a0different contexts.\r\n<h2><strong>Structuring<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Structuring is the process of getting learners ready to learn<\/strong> by selecting, organizing, and previewing the content to be presented. [Lesson introduction] Structuring is that part of a lesson during which the teacher exerts the most control over the learning process. During structuring, it is essential that the teacher be skilled at capturing the attention of learners and focusing it on the outcome of the lesson. If not fully alert, learners will find it difficult to remember the information given, understand the goal of the lesson, or participate in the instructional process\u2014all of which are essential for learning and transfer to occur.<\/p>\r\nHow do you gain a learner\u2019s attention? Your voice, your actions, and your visual displays\u00a0have to compete with hundreds of other stimuli that also are vying for your learners\u2019\u00a0attention. How can you get students to attend? What does it mean to \u201cpay attention\u201d?\u00a0Learners who pay attention usually demonstrate several skills.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>They orient themselves to you and what you direct them to (for example, the overhead projector, the blackboard, the text).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>They focus their attention on the relevant aspects of what they are attending to (for example, the problem you are describing, the responses of another student, the\u00a0picture in the text).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>They ignore distracting stimuli (for example, another student or the sounds of a\u00a0nearby classroom).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>They remain alert during the lesson (for example, they maintain their engagement\u00a0with the lesson despite a desire to return to a more passive state).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nStructuring focuses learners on the first two of the skills above. These involve (1) focusing\u00a0attention by directing the eyes, ears, and body posture of learners to a relevant stimulus and\u00a0(2) holding their attention long enough to establish a learning set. We will explore the third\u00a0and fourth attention-gaining skills under the expert practice of coaching. For now, let\u2019s turn\u00a0to the first two skills: focusing and holding your learners\u2019 attention.\r\n<h3><strong>Focusing Attention<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Before you can communicate the purpose or objective of a lesson, you\u00a0must focus the eyes and ears of your learners. This is difficult at the start of class if your\u00a0learners are taking out materials, finishing their homework, asking questions of one another,\u00a0or catching up on the latest gossip with their friends.<\/p>\r\n<strong>The Hook<\/strong>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">The \"hook\" is also referred to as the \"anticipatory set\" in educational circles, but \"hook\" is a good vernacular way of expressing \"anticipatory set.\" It's the thing that grabs, or \"hooks\" your attention and helps to focus you on the topic at hand.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/cArUHPZjilc\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Video 8.7.1.\u00a0<\/strong><em>The Hook\u00a0<\/em>suggests techniques for getting students\u2019 attention and motivate them to become engaged with the lessons.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Research on attention has focused on four properties of instructional stimuli that cause\u00a0learners to make an attending response, such as shifting one\u2019s body posture, changing the\u00a0direction of a gaze, scanning the visual field, or holding a fixed stare (Solso, 1988). From\u00a0this research, we can identify four appeals that can be used to make instructional content more\u00a0attractive to learners. They are (1) psychophysical appeal, (2) emotional appeal, (3)\u00a0discrepancy appeal, and (4) commanding stimuli appeal.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Psychophysical Appeal.<\/strong>\u00a0A psychophysical appeal is any variation in the color, size,\u00a0intensity, or pitch of stimuli in your learners\u2019 visual field that causes them to make an\u00a0attending response. The most accessible and efficient stimuli for you to vary are those coming\u00a0from your own body: your voice, gestures, posture, movement, facial expressions. You can\u00a0most efficiently focus your learners\u2019 attention by changing your voice inflection, moving as\u00a0you talk, and varying your posture or gestures.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Emotional Appeal.<\/strong>\u00a0Just as we have emotional responses associated with our names, learners\u00a0have emotional responses to certain sights, sounds, words, and smells. The skillful teacher\u00a0uses the emotional appeal of these stimuli to focus learners\u2019 attention by calling on them by\u00a0name, commenting from time to time on a unique article of their clothing, using words in the\u00a0student\u2019s second or native language, and introducing certain sights, sounds, and smells that\u00a0may relate to the topic of a lesson.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Discrepancy Appeal.<\/strong>\u00a0Our attention is often drawn to stimuli that make a discrepancy\u00a0appeal by means of the element of surprise\u2014something novel or unique grabs our attention.\u00a0The history teacher who dresses up in an authentic costume to illustrate a period in history,\u00a0the science teacher who creates an unusual noise or smell at the start of an experiment, the\u00a0math teacher who begins by presenting an unsolvable problem, the language teacher who\u00a0deliberately misspells a word to be used in the day\u2019s lesson, or the speech teacher who stages\u00a0a shouting match with a student before a lesson on listening skills to demonstrate\u00a0inattention\u2014all are using the property of discrepancy to focus the attention of learners.<\/p>\r\n<strong>Commanding Stimuli Appeal.<\/strong>\u00a0Teachers often use commanding stimuli appeal to get\u00a0learners to comply with a request. Statements such as \u201cNow listen closely\u201d or \u201cAll books and\u00a0pens away,\u201d when delivered assertively, are likely to be followed. Some teachers have their\u00a0students vote on a code word during the first week of school, which when spoken assertively\u00a0by the teacher gets everyone to stop what they are doing and look at the teacher.\r\n\r\n<strong>Holding Attention.<\/strong>\u00a0The expert practice of structuring involves not only focusing the attention\u00a0of learners but also giving them something to focus on. This is accomplished by building a\u00a0learning set. Hunter (1982) refers to this phase of the lesson as the anticipatory set. Its\u00a0purpose is to make the goal or objective of the lesson relevant to the learners, to put the\u00a0lesson into a context the learners can relate to, and to get their minds off other distracting\u00a0stimuli. During this time learners recall past learning by drawing a picture, by summarizing\u00a0something they saw or heard, by reading a short passage, or by writing down an idea\u2014all\u00a0with the intent of relating past with present learning.\r\n\r\nAnticipatory sets often take the form of advance organizers (Ausubel, 1968). Advance organizers give learners an overview of what is to come that helps\u00a0them store, label, and package the content for retention and later use. For example, \u201cListen to\u00a0this story and think of the three things the duckling did.\u201d\r\n<h3><strong>Activating Prior Knowledge<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Another way to connect curriculum goals to students\u2019 experience is by\u00a0<strong>activating prior knowledge<\/strong>, a term that refers to encouraging students to recall what they know already about new material being learned. Various formats for activating prior knowledge are possible. When introducing a unit about how biologists classify animal and plant species, for example, a teacher can invite students to discuss how they already classify different kinds of plants and animals. Having highlighted this informal knowledge, the teacher can then explore how the same species are classified by biological scientists, and compare the scientists\u2019 classification schemes to the students\u2019 own schemes. The activation does not have to happen orally, as in this example; a teacher can also ask students to write down as many distinct types of animals and plants that they can think of, and then ask students to diagram or map their relationships\u2014essentially creating a\u00a0<em>concept map<\/em>\u00a0(Gurlitt, et al., 2006). Whatever the strategy used, activation helps by making students\u2019 prior knowledge or experience conscious and therefore easier to link to new concepts or information.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Anticipating Preconceptions of Students<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Ironically<strong>, activating students\u2019 prior knowledge<\/strong> can be a mixed blessing if some of the prior knowledge is misleading or downright wrong. Misleading or erroneous knowledge is especially common among young students, but it can happen at any grade level. A kindergarten child may think that the sun literally \u201crises\u201d in the morning, since she often hears adults use this expression, or that the earth is flat because it obviously\u00a0<em>looks<\/em>\u00a0flat. But a high school student may mistakenly believe that large objects (a boulder) fall faster than small ones (a pebble), or that a heavy object dropped (not thrown) from a moving car window will fall straight down instead of traveling laterally alongside the car while it falls.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Because<strong> misconceptions<\/strong> are quite common among students and even among adults, teachers are more effective if they can\u00a0<strong>anticipate preconceptions of students<\/strong>\u00a0wherever possible. The task is twofold. First the teacher must know or at least guess students\u2019 preconceptions as much as possible in advance, so that she can design\u00a0learning activities to counteract and revise their thinking. Some preconceptions have been well-documented by educational research and therefore can in principle be anticipated easily\u2014though they may still sometimes take a teacher by surprise during a busy activity or lesson (Tanner &amp; Allen, 2005; Chiu &amp; Lin, 2005). Table 1\u00a0lists a few of these common preconceptions. Others may be unique to particular students, however, and a teacher may only by able to learn of them through experience\u2014by listening carefully to what students say and write and by watching what they do. A few preconceptions may be so ingrained or tied to other, more deeply held beliefs that students may resist giving them up, either consciously or unconsciously. It may be hard, for example, for some students to give up the idea that girls are less talented at math or science than are boys, even though research generally finds this is not the case (Hyde &amp; Linn, 2006).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table style=\"height: 241px\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 13px\">\r\n<th style=\"height: 13px;width: 959.271px\" colspan=\"2\"><strong>Table 8.7.1<\/strong>\u00a0Several misconceptions about science<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 13px\">\r\n<th style=\"height: 13px;width: 375.938px\">Misconception<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"height: 13px;width: 569.271px\">What to do<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 29px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 375.938px\">Stars and constellations appear in the same place in the sky every night.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 570.382px\">Ask students to observe carefully the locations of a bright star once a week for several weeks.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 29px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 375.938px\">The world is flat, circular like a pancake.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 570.382px\">Use a globe or ball to find countries located over the horizon; use computer software (e.g. Global Earth) to illustrate how a round Earth can look flat up close.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 29px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 375.938px\">Dinosaurs disappeared at the same time that human beings appeared and because of human activity.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 570.382px\">Construct a timeline of major periods of Darwinian evolution.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 29px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 375.938px\">Rivers always flow from North to South.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 570.382px\">Identify rivers that flow South to North (e.g. the Red River in North Dakota and Canada); talk about how Southern locations are not necessarily \u201clower.\u201d<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 29px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 375.938px\">Force is needed not only to start an object moving, but to keep it moving.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 570.382px\">Explain the concept of\u00a0<em>inertia<\/em>; demonstrate inertia using low-friction motion (e.g. with a hovercraft or dry-ice puck).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 13px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 13px;width: 375.938px\">Volume, weight, and size are identical concepts.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 13px;width: 570.382px\">Have students weigh objects of different sizes or volumes, and compare the results.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 44px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 44px;width: 375.938px\">Seasons happen because the Earth changes distance from the sun.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 44px;width: 570.382px\">Explain the tilt of Earth\u2019s axis using a globe and light as a model; demonstrate reduced heating of surfaces by placing similar surfaces outdoors at different angles to the sun\u2019s rays.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 13px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 13px;width: 959.271px\" colspan=\"2\"><em>Sources:<\/em>\u00a0Chi, 2005; D. Clark, 2006; Slotta &amp; Chi, 2006; Owens, 2003.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">The second task when anticipating preconceptions is to treat students\u2019 existing knowledge and beliefs with respect, even when they do include misconceptions or errors. This may seem obvious in principle, but it needs remembering when students persist with misconceptions in spite of a teacher\u2019s efforts to teach alternative ideas or concepts. Most of us\u2014including most students\u2014have reasons for holding our beliefs, even when the beliefs do not agree with teachers, textbooks, or other authorities, and we appreciate having our beliefs treated with respect. Students are no different from other people in this regard. In a high school biology class, for example, some students may have personal reasons for not agreeing with the theory of evolution associated with Charles Darwin. For religious reasons, they may support explanations of the origins of life that give a more active, interventionist role to God (Brumfiel, 2005). If their beliefs disagree with the teacher\u2019s or the textbook, then the disagreement needs to be acknowledged respectfully. For some students (and perhaps some teachers), expressing fundamental disagreement respectfully may feel awkward, but it needs to be done nonetheless.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Modeling<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Once your learners\u2019 attention is on you, you have the opportunity to model what your\u00a0students are about to learn.\u00a0 The term\u00a0<em>modeling<\/em>\u00a0can mean either a demonstration of the desired behavior or representation of important theory, idea, or object. Each of these meanings can link curriculum goals with students\u2019 prior knowledge and experience.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3><strong>Modeling as a Demonstration<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nIn the first meaning,\u00a0<strong>modeling<\/strong>\u00a0refers to performing or demonstrating a desired new behavior or skill, as when a teacher or classmate demonstrates polite behaviors or the correct solution to a math problem. In this case, we say that the teacher or classmate\u00a0<em>models<\/em>\u00a0the desired behavior, either deliberately or in the course of other ongoing activity. Students observe the modeled behavior and (hopefully) imitate it themselves. Research repeatedly shows that modeling desired behaviors is an effective way to learn new behaviors, especially when the model is perceived as important (like the teacher), similar to the learner (like a student\u2019s best friend), or has a warm, positive relationship with the learner (like the teacher or the student\u2019s friend) (Bandura, 2002; Gibson, 2004). Modeling in this sense is sometimes also called\u00a0<em>observational learning<\/em>. It has many of the same properties as classic operant conditioning, except that reinforcement during observational learning is witnessed in others rather than experienced by the learner directly. Watching others being reinforced is sometimes called\u00a0<em>vicarious reinforcement<\/em>. The idea is that if, for example, a student observes a classmate who behaves politely with the teacher and then sees that classmate receive praise for the behavior (vicarious reinforcement), the student is more likely to imitate the polite behavior that he saw. As in classic operant conditioning, furthermore, if the student observes that politeness by classmates is ignored (extinction or no reinforcement), then the student is much less likely to imitate the politeness. Worse yet, if the student observes that negative behaviors in others lead to positive consequences (like attention from peers), then the student may imitate the negative behaviors (Rebellon, 2006). Cursing and swearing, and even bullying or vandalism, can be reinforced vicariously, just as can more desired behaviors.\r\n\r\nModeling\u2014in this first sense of a demonstration\u2014connects instructional goals to students\u2019 experiences by presenting real, vivid examples of behaviors or skills in a way that a student can practice directly, rather than merely talk about. There is often little need, when imitating a model, to translate ideas or instructions from verbal form into action. For students struggling with language and literacy, in particular, this feature can be a real advantage.\r\n<h3><strong>Modeling as a Simplified Representation aka learning activity<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nIn the second meaning of modeling, a\u00a0<strong>model<\/strong>\u00a0is a simplified representation of a phenomenon that incorporates the important properties of the phenomenon. Models in this sense may sometimes be quite tangible, direct copies\u00a0of reality; when I was in fourth grade growing up in California, for example, we made scale models of the Spanish missions as part of our social studies lessons about California history. But models can also be imaginary, though still based on familiar elements. In a science curriculum, for example, the behavior of gas molecules under pressure can be modeled by imagining the molecules as ping pong balls flying about and colliding in an empty room. Reducing the space available to the gas by making the room smaller, causes the ping pong balls to collide more frequently and vigorously, and thereby increases the pressure on the walls of the room. Increasing space has the opposite effect. Creating an actual room full of ping pong balls may be impractical, of course, but the model can still be imagined.\r\n\r\nModeling in this second sense is not about altering students\u2019 behavior, but about increasing their understanding of a newly learned idea, theory, or phenomenon. The model itself uses objects or events that are already familiar to students\u2014simple balls and their behavior when colliding\u2014and in this way supports students\u2019 learning of new, unfamiliar material. Not every new concept or idea lends itself to such modeling, but many do: students can create models of unfamiliar animals, for example, or of medieval castles, or of ecological systems. Two-dimensional models\u2014essentially drawings\u2014can also be helpful: students can illustrate literature or historical events, or make maps of their own neighborhoods. The choice of model depends largely on the specific curriculum goals which the teacher needs to accomplish at a particular time.\r\n<h2><strong>Coaching<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nCoaching is that stage of the instructional process during which the learner converts\u00a0memories into actions as a result of the modeling process. This is the aspect of instruction we\u00a0usually think of as teaching. Coaching is the most physically and mentally demanding of the\u00a0four teaching activities and typically takes up the most time in a lesson.\u00a0Effective coaching requires:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>establishing accountability<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>providing opportunities for practice<\/strong><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>guiding practice by prompting and questioning<\/strong><\/li>\r\n \t<li>motivating.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><strong>Establishing Accountability<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nThe following extract from a student teacher\u2019s diary describes a\u00a0common teaching problem:\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">School seems to mean so little for many of my kids. They can do the work but they\u00a0just sit there and wait to be reminded or threatened. Take Bart. He comes into class,\u00a0looks at me when I\u2019m giving the class assignment, but then sits and does nothing until I\u00a0remind him to get to work. He works for a while and then stops until the next\u00a0reminder. What work he does is about 25 percent correct. During discussions he never\u00a0listens to what anyone else is saying. I have about five or six Barts in every one of my\u00a0eighth-grade classes. (Beth, student teacher)<\/div>\r\nThis excerpt describes what many beginning teachers encounter when it is time for practice or\u00a0classwork. It is tempting to assume, like Beth, that the problem is motivation: the students\u00a0just don\u2019t care. Research by Kounin (1970) and Emmer, Evertson, Clements, and Worsham\u00a0(1994), however, point us in another direction. They suggest that incomplete, sloppy, or\u00a0missed assignments and an \u201cI don\u2019t care\u201d attitude may reflect the teacher\u2019s failure to make\u00a0learners feel accountable during the coaching stage of the lesson.\r\n\r\nAccountability is the degree to which teachers communicate to learners the classwork they\u00a0are expected to complete during a specific period of time. The more learners are told what\u00a0they are responsible for, the greater the accountability for learning. From research by Emmer\u00a0et al. (1994), we learn that there are <strong>three aspects to accountability: <\/strong>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 80px\">(1) communication<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 80px\">(2) monitoring<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 80px\">(3) feedback<\/p>\r\nThe accompanying box, Establishing Accountability, details the steps you can take.\r\n\r\nToward the end of Beth\u2019s student teaching, she became much more skilled at establishing\u00a0accountability. Here is an excerpt from her cooperating teacher\u2019s evaluation of her\u00a0performance during her last week of student teaching:\r\n<div class=\"textbox\" style=\"text-align: left\">Beth, like many new teachers, tended to hide immediately after giving an assignment.\u00a0She would sit at her desk and avoid even looking at students. She hoped that the students would begin work immediately and everyone would know exactly what to do.\u00a0She hadn\u2019t developed the skill of anticipating problems and giving clear step-by-step\u00a0directions. No sooner would she sit down than students would swarm to her desk with\u00a0questions about what they were expected to do.\u00a0As time passed, she learned to move about the room during the work activity,\u00a0question learners who were having problems, and encourage those who were doing\u00a0well. Now, even when the class is working quietly, she continues to move about the\u00a0room encouraging, praising, and prompting.<\/div>\r\n<h3><strong>Providing Opportunities For Practice<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nThe purpose of practice is to engage learners actively in the learning process. During structuring and modeling, students listen, observe, covertly rehearse, or make brief responses to your questions as you check for understanding. But they\u00a0have not yet had the opportunity to practice and master the skills you modeled, the\u00a0information you conveyed, or the problem-solving techniques you demonstrated. During the\u00a0coaching phase of instruction, learners begin to practice the objectives of your lesson.\r\n\r\nPractice has historically been associated with drill (Ornstein, 1992) and direct instructional\u00a0methods (Borich, 1996). It has been strongly emphasized in behavioristic approaches to\u00a0learning that stress the importance of building stimulus-response connections (Hilgard &amp;\u00a0Bower, 1981). Mastery learning and errorless learning methods also incorporate extensive\u00a0practice and drill (Bloom, 1981).\r\n\r\nHowever, practice is essential for accomplishing the goals of any instructional\u00a0method\u2014direct, indirect, or self-directed. Depending on the instructional method used and\u00a0the desired objective, practice can take many forms. During direct instruction, practice may\u00a0take the form of repeating multiplication tables or letters of the alphabet. It may also involve\u00a0independent seatwork and the use of workbooks. Practice during indirect instruction may\u00a0occur when the teacher places learners in small groups to solve science or math problems\u00a0cooperatively. It may also occur when students complete problem-solving handouts and\u00a0worksheets. During self-directed learning, practice may take the form of reciprocal teaching\u00a0within the naturally occurring dialogue of the classroom. It may also\u00a0involve completing extended projects and investigations at a learning center, at home, or in\r\nthe library.\r\n\r\nRegardless of the type of practice activity used, there are several guidelines for promoting\u00a0effective practice:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Students should understand the reasons for practice<\/strong>. Practice often turns into busywork, which can create boredom, frustration, and noncompliance. Learners should\u00a0approach classroom practice with the enthusiasm experienced by an athlete in training. This is\u00a0more likely to occur if (1) the purpose of the practice has been made known to learners (\u201cWe\u00a0will need to be proficient at solving these problems in order to go on to our next activity\u201d)\u00a0and (2) practice occurs during as well as after new learning (\u201cLet\u2019s stop right here, so you can\u00a0try some of these problems yourselves\u201d).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Effective practice is delivered in a manner that is brief, nonevaluative, and\u00a0supportive.<\/strong> Eliciting practice involves more than simply saying \u201cOK. Take out your books,\u00a0turn to page 78, and answer questions 1, 3, 7, and 9. You have 20 minutes.\u201d Rather, your\u00a0introduction to a practice activity should accomplish three objectives: (1) inform the learners\u00a0that they are going to practice something they are capable of succeeding at (\u201cYou\u2019ve done\u00a0part of this before, so this shouldn\u2019t be much different\u201d), (2) dispel anxiety about doing the\u00a0task through the use of nonevaluative and non-threatening language (\u201cYou\u2019ve got part of it\u00a0right, Anita; now, think some more and you\u2019ll have it\u201d), and (3) let the learners know that\r\nyou will be around to monitor their work and support their efforts (\u201cI will be around to help,\u00a0so let me know if you have a problem\u201d).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Practice should be designed to ensure success.<\/strong> Practice makes perfect only when it is\u00a0done correctly. If your learners are making many math, punctuation, or problem-solving\u00a0mistakes, practice is making imperfect. Design your practice to produce as few errors as\u00a0possible. For example, worksheets should be developed to ensure that at least 80 to 90 percent\u00a0of the problems are completed correctly.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Practice should be arranged to allow students to receive feedback<\/strong>. As we learned\u00a0earlier in our discussion of modeling, feedback exerts a powerful effect on learning. Develop\u00a0procedures and routines for rapid checking of work so that learners know as soon as possible\r\nhow well they are performing. Having peers correct one another\u2019s practice is an efficient way\u00a0to give feedback. Also, having answer sheets handy so that learners can check their own work\u00a0can be a simple and effective means of providing feedback.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Practice should have the qualities of progress, challenge, and variety<\/strong>. Kounin\u00a0(1970) found that the key to preventing learners from becoming bored was to design practice\u00a0opportunities that allow them to see that they are making progress (\u201cDon\u2019t forget to check\u00a0your answers with the key on the board\u201d). In addition, practice should be introduced in a\u00a0challenging and enthusiastic manner (\u201cThis will really test your understanding with some new\u00a0and interesting kinds of problems\u201d). Finally, practice exercises should include a variety of\u00a0examples and situations.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><strong>Guided Practice, Independent Practice, and Homework<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nWe typically think of practice as a solitary\u00a0activity during which learners master skills that have been explained or demonstrated by the\u00a0teacher. This type of practice is often referred to as independent practice. However, other\u00a0forms of practice involve the active participation of both teacher and learners, whether one-to-one or in groups. This type of practice is called guided practice. Much of this task involves helping students to make the transition from supervised learning to self-regulated learning\u2014or put differently, from practice that is relatively guided to practice that is relatively independent.\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Video:<\/strong> Structuring and delivering your lessons requires a plan that has a deliberate progression in which responsibility for being able to do the work is gradually transferred from teacher to student. (4:54 minutes)<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/Lhg4vYgE9TI\r\n<h4>Guided Practice<\/h4>\r\nWhen students first learn a new skill or a new set of ideas, they are especially likely to encounter problems and make mistakes that interfere with the very process of learning. In figuring out how to use a new software program, for example, a student may unknowingly press a wrong button that prevents further functioning of the program. In translating sentences from Spanish into English in a language class, for another example, a student might misinterpret one particular word or grammatical feature. This one mistake may cause many sentences to be translated incorrectly, and so on. So students initially need\u00a0<strong>guided practice<\/strong>\u2014opportunities to work somewhat independently, but with a teacher or other expert close at hand prevent or fix difficulties when they occur. In general, educational research has found that guided practice helps all learners, but especially those who are struggling (Bryan &amp; Burstein, 2004: Woodward, 2004). A first-grade child has difficulty in decoding printed words, for example, benefits from guidance more than one who can decode easily. But both students benefit in the initial stages of learning, since both may make more mistakes then. Guided practice, by its nature, sends a dual message to students: it is important to learn new material well, but it is also important to become able to use learning\u00a0<em>without<\/em>\u00a0assistance, beyond the lesson where it is learned and even beyond the classroom.\r\n\r\nGuided practice is much like the concepts of the\u00a0<em>zone of proximal development<\/em>\u00a0(or\u00a0<em>ZPD<\/em>) and\u00a0<em>instructional scaffolding<\/em>\u00a0that we discussed in connection with Vygotsky\u2019s theory of learning. In essence, during guided practice, the teacher creates a ZPD or scaffold (or framework) in which the student can accomplish more with partial knowledge or skill than the student could accomplish alone. But whatever its name\u2014guided practice, a ZPD, or a scaffold\u2014ensuring the success of guidance depends on several key elements: focusing on the task at hand, asking questions that break the task into manageable parts, reframing or restating the task so that it becomes more understandable, and giving frequent feedback about the student\u2019s progress (Rogoff, 2003). Combining the elements appropriately takes sensitivity and improvisational skill\u2014even artfulness\u2014but these very challenges are among the true joys of teaching.\r\n<h4>Independent Practice<\/h4>\r\nAs students gain facility with a new skill or new knowledge, they tend to need less guidance and more time to consolidate (or strengthen) their new knowledge with additional practice. Since they are less likely to encounter mistakes or problems at this point, they begin to benefit from\u00a0<strong>independent practice<\/strong>\u2014opportunities to review and repeat their knowledge at their own pace and with fewer interruptions. At this point, therefore, guided practice may feel less like help than like an interruption, even if it is well-intentioned. A student who already knows how to use a new computer program, for example, may be frustrated by waiting for the teacher to explain each step of the program individually. If a student is already skillful at translating Spanish sentences into English in a language class, it can be annoying for the teacher to \u201chelp\u201d by pointing out minor errors that the student is likely to catch for herself.\r\n\r\nBy definition, the purpose of independent practice is to provide more self-regulation of learning than what comes from guided practice. It implies a different message for students than what is conveyed by guided practice, a message that goes beyond the earlier one: that it is now time to take more complete responsibility for own learning. When all goes well, independent practice is the eventual outcome of the zone of proximal development created during the earlier phase of guided practice described above: the student can now do on his or her own, what originally required assistance from someone else. Or stated differently, independent practice is a way of encouraging\u00a0<em>self-determination<\/em>\u00a0about learning. In order to work independently, a student must set his or her own direction and monitor his or her own success; by definition, no one can do this for the student.\r\n<h4>Homework<\/h4>\r\nThe chances are that you already have experienced many forms of homework in your own educational career. The widespread practice of assigning review work to do outside of school is a way of supplementing scarce time in class and of providing independent practice for students. Homework has generated controversy throughout most of its history in public education, partly because it encroaches on students\u2019 personal and family-oriented time, and partly because research finds no consistent benefits of doing homework (Gill &amp; Schlossman, 2004; Kohn, 2004). In spite of these criticisms, though, parents and teachers tend to favor homework when it is used for two main purposes. One purpose is to review and practice material that has already been introduced and practiced at school; a sheet of arithmetic problems might be a classic example. When used for this purpose, the amount of homework is usually minimal in the earliest grades, if any is assigned at all. One educational expert recommends only ten minutes per day in first grade at most, and only gradual increases in amount as students get older (Cooper &amp; Valentine, 2001).\r\n\r\nThe second purpose of supporting homework is to convey the idea of schoolwork being the \u201cjob\u201d of childhood and youth. Just as on an adult job, students must complete homework tasks with minimal supervision and sometimes even minimal training. Doing the tasks, furthermore, is a way to get ahead or further along in the workplace (for an adult) or at school (for a child). One study in which researchers interviewed children about these ideas, in fact, found that children do indeed regard homework as work in the same way that adults think of a job (Cornu &amp; Xu, 2004). In the children\u2019s minds, homework tasks were not \u201cfun,\u201d in spite of teachers\u2019 frequent efforts to make them fun. Instead, they were jobs that needed doing, much like household chores. When it came to homework, children regarded parents as the teachers\u2019 assistants\u2014people merely carrying out the wishes of the teacher. Like any\u00a0job, the job of doing homework varied in stressfulness; when required at an appropriate amount and level of difficulty, and when children reported having good \u201cbosses\u201d (parents and teachers), the job of homework could actually be satisfying in the way that many adults\u2019 jobs can be satisfying when well-done.\r\n<h3><strong>Motivating Learners<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Successful groups of learners, no less than successful teams of athletes,\u00a0demand that their coaches be skilled motivators. The expert practice of coaching, therefore,\u00a0requires that teachers be skilled at motivating learners. The learning that is elicited and\u00a0strengthened during guided practice must be maintained, generalized, and transferred outside\u00a0of practice. Your knowledge of motivation acquired and your ability to instill it\u00a0in your learners will help this take place.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2><strong>Fading<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Although all four teaching activities include elements of transfer of learning, fading is the\u00a0event that most directly achieves it. The expert practice of fading, whether used during direct,\u00a0indirect, or self-directed instruction, involves two steps:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">The removal of any external supports required to activate learning (for example, prompts and reinforcers).<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">The provision of independent practice that promotes transfer.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<h3><sub><strong>Prompt Fading<\/strong><\/sub><\/h3>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">The teaching of many action sequences, such as testing a hypothesis, forming\u00a0correct letters in handwriting, tying knots, focusing a microscope, or dissecting a frog,\u00a0frequently requires prompts to guide correct responses. Likewise, prompts are frequently\u00a0required to help learners develop oral language proficiency, essay writing, and problem-solving skills. These prompts may be verbal, gestural, or physical.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">You can fade verbal prompts by gradually using fewer words or shorter explanations,\u00a0allowing more time for learner response, or lowering the sound of your voice as the student\u00a0begins to work more skillfully and independently. We often fade gestural prompts by\u00a0gradually shortening the length of the gesture from a full arm sweep, for example, to a short\u00a0pointing response. Physical prompts can be faded by slowly moving your assistance from\r\nhand-over-hand, to guiding the wrist, to lightly touching the forearm, to lightly tapping the\u00a0elbow. Delaying the fading of prompts can lead to prompt dependency. Conversely, removing\u00a0prompts too soon can create frustration and anxiety in the learner.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3><strong>Reinforcer Fading<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">The purpose of reinforcer fading is to gradually transfer the motivation\u00a0for performing a skill from extrinsic reinforcers (such as food, tokens, stickers, and praise) to\u00a0intrinsic reinforcers. It is more desirable and natural for learners to read because they enjoy it\u00a0than because their parents give them a dollar for every book they read. Likewise, we want\u00a0learners to keep the classroom neat and to play sports or musical instruments for the\u00a0enjoyment of the activity rather than to obtain a grade.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3><strong>Providing Independent Practice That Promotes Transfer<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nThe following first-person account\u00a0describes one of the most vexing problems in teaching: how to help students demonstrate their\u00a0learning in new situations and settings.\r\n<blockquote>Yesterday afternoon I had the most frustrating experience. I was walking to the subway\u00a0after school and I ran into Gabriel, one of my ESL (English as a Second Language)\u00a0students. We had just spent the last two days drilling the future tense of \u201cgoing to,\u201d as\u00a0in \u201cWhat are you going to do tomorrow?\u201d So I said, \u201cGabriel, what are you going to\u00a0do tonight?\u201d And do you know what he said after two days of drill and practice? \u201cI\u00a0went to finish my homework tonight.\u201d Not \u201cwant\u201d \u2026but \u201cwent.\u201d He completely mixed\u00a0up the past and future tenses. I don\u2019t know how these kids are ever going to learn this\u00a0stuff. (Author, personal experience)<\/blockquote>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Transfer of learning is the phrase used to describe this problem. Teachers want their\u00a0students to transfer their learning, or generalize it from the classroom to the world outside the\u00a0classroom. Of what value is learning how to speak or write grammatically correct English,\u00a0solve math problems, type with accuracy, read poetry, plan a menu, or use logic if these skills\u00a0are practiced only in a classroom under the guidance of a teacher?<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Transfer of learning is a central concern whether you are engaged in direct, indirect, or\u00a0self-directed instruction\u2014that is, whether you want learners to acquire facts, rules, and action\u00a0sequences; concepts, patterns, and abstractions; or learn how to learn. Regardless of which\u00a0instructional method you choose or what the goal or objective of instruction is, effective\u00a0instruction should culminate in the learner\u2019s demonstrating her learning in a new or different\u00a0context.<\/p>\r\nThe purpose of guided practice during coaching is to help learners acquire new\u00a0intellectual, social, and motor skills. The purpose of independent practice during fading is to\u00a0help learners transfer those skills to real-world contexts. Achieving this goal requires teachers\u00a0to design independent practice with transfer in mind. Independent practice that promotes\u00a0transfer should:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>emphasize mastery by beginning after learners have mastered the original task that\u00a0has been modeled for them<\/li>\r\n \t<li>have real-world similarity by being completed under the same time constraints and\u00a0with the same distractions that exist in the real world<\/li>\r\n \t<li>provide variety by giving learners as many different examples and situations as\u00a0possible on which to practice, using a variety of sources, such as fiction, editorials,\u00a0poetry, and magazines<\/li>\r\n \t<li>offer flexibility by changing the conditions, locations, and peers under which practice\u00a0occurs<\/li>\r\n \t<li>promote self-direction by asking learners to identify examples where they can use\u00a0their skills, such as measurement, punctuation, money management, scientific\u00a0inquiry, and classifying objects, and to monitor their own progress.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<div><strong>References<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL<\/div>\r\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\r\n \t<li>Delivering Instruction.\u00a0<strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Nicole Arduini-Van Hoose.\u00a0<strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Hudson Valley Community College.\u00a0<strong>Located at<\/strong>:\u00a0.\u00a0<strong>License<\/strong>:\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY<\/div>\r\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\r\n \t<li>Educational Psychology.\u00a0<strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton.\u00a0<strong>Provided by<\/strong>: The Saylor Foundation.\u00a0<strong>Located at<\/strong>:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/educationalpsychology\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/educationalpsychology<\/a>.\u00a0<strong>License<\/strong>:\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Educational Psychology.\u00a0<strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Gary D. Borich and Martin L. Tombari.\u00a0<strong>License<\/strong>:\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION<\/div>\r\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\r\n \t<li>Teach Like a Champion Technique 12--The Hook.\u00a0<strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Kaizen Teaching.\u00a0<strong>Located at<\/strong>:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/cArUHPZjilc\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/youtu.be\/cArUHPZjilc<\/a>.\u00a0<strong>License<\/strong>:\u00a0<em>All Rights Reserved<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Teach Like a Champion Technique Supplement: I\/We\/You.\u00a0<strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Kaizen Teaching.\u00a0<strong>Located at<\/strong>:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/Lhg4vYgE9TI\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/youtu.be\/Lhg4vYgE9TI<\/a>.\u00a0<strong>License<\/strong>:\u00a0<em>All Rights Reserved<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nImage source Image by\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/users\/14995841-14995841\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=4784917\">14995841<\/a>\u00a0from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=4784917\">Pixabay<\/a>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<h2>Delivering Instruction<\/h2>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-73 size-full\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/files\/2020\/07\/delivering-instruction-1.jpg\" alt=\"Classroom setting with a teacher in front of the class\" width=\"640\" height=\"426\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/files\/2020\/07\/delivering-instruction-1.jpg 640w, https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/files\/2020\/07\/delivering-instruction-1-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/files\/2020\/07\/delivering-instruction-1-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/files\/2020\/07\/delivering-instruction-1-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/files\/2020\/07\/delivering-instruction-1-350x233.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\" \/><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem\">Table of Contents<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Structuring<\/li>\n<li>Focusing Attention<\/li>\n<li>Activating Prior Knowledge<\/li>\n<li>Anticipating Preconceptions of Students<\/li>\n<li>Modeling<\/li>\n<li>Coaching<\/li>\n<li>Establishing Accountability<\/li>\n<li>Providing Opportunities for Practice<\/li>\n<li>Guided Practice Independent Practice and Homework<\/li>\n<li>Motivating Learners<\/li>\n<li>Fading<\/li>\n<li>Providing Independent Practice That Promotes Transfer of Learning<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li>Delivering Instruction.\u00a0<strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Nicole Arduini-Van Hoose.\u00a0<strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Hudson Valley Community College.\u00a0<strong>Located at<\/strong>:\u00a0.\u00a0<strong>License<\/strong>:\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>You learned about the importance of specifying goals and objectives for your learners. We discussed how objectives specify what students are expected to do to demonstrate learning.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">There is another important use for goals and objectives: they can determine your choice of instructional methods. Simply stated, instructional methods are patterns of practice that recur in classrooms time and again. They include, for example, the methods of direct (or didactic) instruction, indirect (or inquiry) instruction, and self-directed (or self-regulated) instruction.\u00a0Each of these general methods includes certain specific teaching skills, among which are\u00a0structuring, modeling, coaching, and fading.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">For instance, if your objective is to have students acquire facts (for example, names and\u00a0dates of battles of the Civil War), rules (for forming possessives), or action sequences (for\u00a0focusing a microscope), you will most likely use direct instruction, which involves some\u00a0questioning, clarifying, and explaining. But if your objective is to teach concepts (for\u00a0example, photosynthesis), patterns (global warming), or abstractions (environmental\u00a0responsibility), you will most likely use indirect instruction, which involves constructivist\u00a0teaching methods. If, however, your objective is to teach strategies for\u00a0learning (for example, a model for learning to solve equations that can be used time and\u00a0again), you will most likely adopt the method of self-directed instruction, which\u00a0incorporates the skills of metacognition (thinking about thinking), subvocal rehearsal, guided\u00a0practice, and self-evaluation.<\/p>\n<p>Regardless of the instructional\u00a0method you are using, you will want to be familiar with structuring, modeling, coaching, and\u00a0fading.\u00a0In the next section, we will study the teaching skills of structuring, modeling,\u00a0coaching, and fading. We will demonstrate how successful teachers use these skills to capture\u00a0student attention, convey purpose, communicate information, keep lessons moving at a brisk\u00a0and lively pace, and provide opportunities for transferring what has been learned to new and\u00a0different contexts.<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Structuring<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Structuring is the process of getting learners ready to learn<\/strong> by selecting, organizing, and previewing the content to be presented. [Lesson introduction] Structuring is that part of a lesson during which the teacher exerts the most control over the learning process. During structuring, it is essential that the teacher be skilled at capturing the attention of learners and focusing it on the outcome of the lesson. If not fully alert, learners will find it difficult to remember the information given, understand the goal of the lesson, or participate in the instructional process\u2014all of which are essential for learning and transfer to occur.<\/p>\n<p>How do you gain a learner\u2019s attention? Your voice, your actions, and your visual displays\u00a0have to compete with hundreds of other stimuli that also are vying for your learners\u2019\u00a0attention. How can you get students to attend? What does it mean to \u201cpay attention\u201d?\u00a0Learners who pay attention usually demonstrate several skills.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>They orient themselves to you and what you direct them to (for example, the overhead projector, the blackboard, the text).<\/li>\n<li>They focus their attention on the relevant aspects of what they are attending to (for example, the problem you are describing, the responses of another student, the\u00a0picture in the text).<\/li>\n<li>They ignore distracting stimuli (for example, another student or the sounds of a\u00a0nearby classroom).<\/li>\n<li>They remain alert during the lesson (for example, they maintain their engagement\u00a0with the lesson despite a desire to return to a more passive state).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Structuring focuses learners on the first two of the skills above. These involve (1) focusing\u00a0attention by directing the eyes, ears, and body posture of learners to a relevant stimulus and\u00a0(2) holding their attention long enough to establish a learning set. We will explore the third\u00a0and fourth attention-gaining skills under the expert practice of coaching. For now, let\u2019s turn\u00a0to the first two skills: focusing and holding your learners\u2019 attention.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Focusing Attention<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Before you can communicate the purpose or objective of a lesson, you\u00a0must focus the eyes and ears of your learners. This is difficult at the start of class if your\u00a0learners are taking out materials, finishing their homework, asking questions of one another,\u00a0or catching up on the latest gossip with their friends.<\/p>\n<p><strong>The Hook<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">The &#8220;hook&#8221; is also referred to as the &#8220;anticipatory set&#8221; in educational circles, but &#8220;hook&#8221; is a good vernacular way of expressing &#8220;anticipatory set.&#8221; It&#8217;s the thing that grabs, or &#8220;hooks&#8221; your attention and helps to focus you on the topic at hand.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Teach Like a Champion Technique 12 - The Hook\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/cArUHPZjilc?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Video 8.7.1.\u00a0<\/strong><em>The Hook\u00a0<\/em>suggests techniques for getting students\u2019 attention and motivate them to become engaged with the lessons.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Research on attention has focused on four properties of instructional stimuli that cause\u00a0learners to make an attending response, such as shifting one\u2019s body posture, changing the\u00a0direction of a gaze, scanning the visual field, or holding a fixed stare (Solso, 1988). From\u00a0this research, we can identify four appeals that can be used to make instructional content more\u00a0attractive to learners. They are (1) psychophysical appeal, (2) emotional appeal, (3)\u00a0discrepancy appeal, and (4) commanding stimuli appeal.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Psychophysical Appeal.<\/strong>\u00a0A psychophysical appeal is any variation in the color, size,\u00a0intensity, or pitch of stimuli in your learners\u2019 visual field that causes them to make an\u00a0attending response. The most accessible and efficient stimuli for you to vary are those coming\u00a0from your own body: your voice, gestures, posture, movement, facial expressions. You can\u00a0most efficiently focus your learners\u2019 attention by changing your voice inflection, moving as\u00a0you talk, and varying your posture or gestures.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Emotional Appeal.<\/strong>\u00a0Just as we have emotional responses associated with our names, learners\u00a0have emotional responses to certain sights, sounds, words, and smells. The skillful teacher\u00a0uses the emotional appeal of these stimuli to focus learners\u2019 attention by calling on them by\u00a0name, commenting from time to time on a unique article of their clothing, using words in the\u00a0student\u2019s second or native language, and introducing certain sights, sounds, and smells that\u00a0may relate to the topic of a lesson.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Discrepancy Appeal.<\/strong>\u00a0Our attention is often drawn to stimuli that make a discrepancy\u00a0appeal by means of the element of surprise\u2014something novel or unique grabs our attention.\u00a0The history teacher who dresses up in an authentic costume to illustrate a period in history,\u00a0the science teacher who creates an unusual noise or smell at the start of an experiment, the\u00a0math teacher who begins by presenting an unsolvable problem, the language teacher who\u00a0deliberately misspells a word to be used in the day\u2019s lesson, or the speech teacher who stages\u00a0a shouting match with a student before a lesson on listening skills to demonstrate\u00a0inattention\u2014all are using the property of discrepancy to focus the attention of learners.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Commanding Stimuli Appeal.<\/strong>\u00a0Teachers often use commanding stimuli appeal to get\u00a0learners to comply with a request. Statements such as \u201cNow listen closely\u201d or \u201cAll books and\u00a0pens away,\u201d when delivered assertively, are likely to be followed. Some teachers have their\u00a0students vote on a code word during the first week of school, which when spoken assertively\u00a0by the teacher gets everyone to stop what they are doing and look at the teacher.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Holding Attention.<\/strong>\u00a0The expert practice of structuring involves not only focusing the attention\u00a0of learners but also giving them something to focus on. This is accomplished by building a\u00a0learning set. Hunter (1982) refers to this phase of the lesson as the anticipatory set. Its\u00a0purpose is to make the goal or objective of the lesson relevant to the learners, to put the\u00a0lesson into a context the learners can relate to, and to get their minds off other distracting\u00a0stimuli. During this time learners recall past learning by drawing a picture, by summarizing\u00a0something they saw or heard, by reading a short passage, or by writing down an idea\u2014all\u00a0with the intent of relating past with present learning.<\/p>\n<p>Anticipatory sets often take the form of advance organizers (Ausubel, 1968). Advance organizers give learners an overview of what is to come that helps\u00a0them store, label, and package the content for retention and later use. For example, \u201cListen to\u00a0this story and think of the three things the duckling did.\u201d<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Activating Prior Knowledge<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Another way to connect curriculum goals to students\u2019 experience is by\u00a0<strong>activating prior knowledge<\/strong>, a term that refers to encouraging students to recall what they know already about new material being learned. Various formats for activating prior knowledge are possible. When introducing a unit about how biologists classify animal and plant species, for example, a teacher can invite students to discuss how they already classify different kinds of plants and animals. Having highlighted this informal knowledge, the teacher can then explore how the same species are classified by biological scientists, and compare the scientists\u2019 classification schemes to the students\u2019 own schemes. The activation does not have to happen orally, as in this example; a teacher can also ask students to write down as many distinct types of animals and plants that they can think of, and then ask students to diagram or map their relationships\u2014essentially creating a\u00a0<em>concept map<\/em>\u00a0(Gurlitt, et al., 2006). Whatever the strategy used, activation helps by making students\u2019 prior knowledge or experience conscious and therefore easier to link to new concepts or information.<\/p>\n<h4>Anticipating Preconceptions of Students<\/h4>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Ironically<strong>, activating students\u2019 prior knowledge<\/strong> can be a mixed blessing if some of the prior knowledge is misleading or downright wrong. Misleading or erroneous knowledge is especially common among young students, but it can happen at any grade level. A kindergarten child may think that the sun literally \u201crises\u201d in the morning, since she often hears adults use this expression, or that the earth is flat because it obviously\u00a0<em>looks<\/em>\u00a0flat. But a high school student may mistakenly believe that large objects (a boulder) fall faster than small ones (a pebble), or that a heavy object dropped (not thrown) from a moving car window will fall straight down instead of traveling laterally alongside the car while it falls.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Because<strong> misconceptions<\/strong> are quite common among students and even among adults, teachers are more effective if they can\u00a0<strong>anticipate preconceptions of students<\/strong>\u00a0wherever possible. The task is twofold. First the teacher must know or at least guess students\u2019 preconceptions as much as possible in advance, so that she can design\u00a0learning activities to counteract and revise their thinking. Some preconceptions have been well-documented by educational research and therefore can in principle be anticipated easily\u2014though they may still sometimes take a teacher by surprise during a busy activity or lesson (Tanner &amp; Allen, 2005; Chiu &amp; Lin, 2005). Table 1\u00a0lists a few of these common preconceptions. Others may be unique to particular students, however, and a teacher may only by able to learn of them through experience\u2014by listening carefully to what students say and write and by watching what they do. A few preconceptions may be so ingrained or tied to other, more deeply held beliefs that students may resist giving them up, either consciously or unconsciously. It may be hard, for example, for some students to give up the idea that girls are less talented at math or science than are boys, even though research generally finds this is not the case (Hyde &amp; Linn, 2006).<\/p>\n<table style=\"height: 241px\">\n<thead>\n<tr style=\"height: 13px\">\n<th style=\"height: 13px;width: 959.271px\" colspan=\"2\"><strong>Table 8.7.1<\/strong>\u00a0Several misconceptions about science<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 13px\">\n<th style=\"height: 13px;width: 375.938px\">Misconception<\/th>\n<th style=\"height: 13px;width: 569.271px\">What to do<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 29px\">\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 375.938px\">Stars and constellations appear in the same place in the sky every night.<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 570.382px\">Ask students to observe carefully the locations of a bright star once a week for several weeks.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 29px\">\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 375.938px\">The world is flat, circular like a pancake.<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 570.382px\">Use a globe or ball to find countries located over the horizon; use computer software (e.g. Global Earth) to illustrate how a round Earth can look flat up close.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 29px\">\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 375.938px\">Dinosaurs disappeared at the same time that human beings appeared and because of human activity.<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 570.382px\">Construct a timeline of major periods of Darwinian evolution.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 29px\">\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 375.938px\">Rivers always flow from North to South.<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 570.382px\">Identify rivers that flow South to North (e.g. the Red River in North Dakota and Canada); talk about how Southern locations are not necessarily \u201clower.\u201d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 29px\">\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 375.938px\">Force is needed not only to start an object moving, but to keep it moving.<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 29px;width: 570.382px\">Explain the concept of\u00a0<em>inertia<\/em>; demonstrate inertia using low-friction motion (e.g. with a hovercraft or dry-ice puck).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 13px\">\n<td style=\"height: 13px;width: 375.938px\">Volume, weight, and size are identical concepts.<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 13px;width: 570.382px\">Have students weigh objects of different sizes or volumes, and compare the results.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 44px\">\n<td style=\"height: 44px;width: 375.938px\">Seasons happen because the Earth changes distance from the sun.<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 44px;width: 570.382px\">Explain the tilt of Earth\u2019s axis using a globe and light as a model; demonstrate reduced heating of surfaces by placing similar surfaces outdoors at different angles to the sun\u2019s rays.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 13px\">\n<td style=\"height: 13px;width: 959.271px\" colspan=\"2\"><em>Sources:<\/em>\u00a0Chi, 2005; D. Clark, 2006; Slotta &amp; Chi, 2006; Owens, 2003.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">The second task when anticipating preconceptions is to treat students\u2019 existing knowledge and beliefs with respect, even when they do include misconceptions or errors. This may seem obvious in principle, but it needs remembering when students persist with misconceptions in spite of a teacher\u2019s efforts to teach alternative ideas or concepts. Most of us\u2014including most students\u2014have reasons for holding our beliefs, even when the beliefs do not agree with teachers, textbooks, or other authorities, and we appreciate having our beliefs treated with respect. Students are no different from other people in this regard. In a high school biology class, for example, some students may have personal reasons for not agreeing with the theory of evolution associated with Charles Darwin. For religious reasons, they may support explanations of the origins of life that give a more active, interventionist role to God (Brumfiel, 2005). If their beliefs disagree with the teacher\u2019s or the textbook, then the disagreement needs to be acknowledged respectfully. For some students (and perhaps some teachers), expressing fundamental disagreement respectfully may feel awkward, but it needs to be done nonetheless.<\/p>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Modeling<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Once your learners\u2019 attention is on you, you have the opportunity to model what your\u00a0students are about to learn.\u00a0 The term\u00a0<em>modeling<\/em>\u00a0can mean either a demonstration of the desired behavior or representation of important theory, idea, or object. Each of these meanings can link curriculum goals with students\u2019 prior knowledge and experience.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Modeling as a Demonstration<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>In the first meaning,\u00a0<strong>modeling<\/strong>\u00a0refers to performing or demonstrating a desired new behavior or skill, as when a teacher or classmate demonstrates polite behaviors or the correct solution to a math problem. In this case, we say that the teacher or classmate\u00a0<em>models<\/em>\u00a0the desired behavior, either deliberately or in the course of other ongoing activity. Students observe the modeled behavior and (hopefully) imitate it themselves. Research repeatedly shows that modeling desired behaviors is an effective way to learn new behaviors, especially when the model is perceived as important (like the teacher), similar to the learner (like a student\u2019s best friend), or has a warm, positive relationship with the learner (like the teacher or the student\u2019s friend) (Bandura, 2002; Gibson, 2004). Modeling in this sense is sometimes also called\u00a0<em>observational learning<\/em>. It has many of the same properties as classic operant conditioning, except that reinforcement during observational learning is witnessed in others rather than experienced by the learner directly. Watching others being reinforced is sometimes called\u00a0<em>vicarious reinforcement<\/em>. The idea is that if, for example, a student observes a classmate who behaves politely with the teacher and then sees that classmate receive praise for the behavior (vicarious reinforcement), the student is more likely to imitate the polite behavior that he saw. As in classic operant conditioning, furthermore, if the student observes that politeness by classmates is ignored (extinction or no reinforcement), then the student is much less likely to imitate the politeness. Worse yet, if the student observes that negative behaviors in others lead to positive consequences (like attention from peers), then the student may imitate the negative behaviors (Rebellon, 2006). Cursing and swearing, and even bullying or vandalism, can be reinforced vicariously, just as can more desired behaviors.<\/p>\n<p>Modeling\u2014in this first sense of a demonstration\u2014connects instructional goals to students\u2019 experiences by presenting real, vivid examples of behaviors or skills in a way that a student can practice directly, rather than merely talk about. There is often little need, when imitating a model, to translate ideas or instructions from verbal form into action. For students struggling with language and literacy, in particular, this feature can be a real advantage.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Modeling as a Simplified Representation aka learning activity<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>In the second meaning of modeling, a\u00a0<strong>model<\/strong>\u00a0is a simplified representation of a phenomenon that incorporates the important properties of the phenomenon. Models in this sense may sometimes be quite tangible, direct copies\u00a0of reality; when I was in fourth grade growing up in California, for example, we made scale models of the Spanish missions as part of our social studies lessons about California history. But models can also be imaginary, though still based on familiar elements. In a science curriculum, for example, the behavior of gas molecules under pressure can be modeled by imagining the molecules as ping pong balls flying about and colliding in an empty room. Reducing the space available to the gas by making the room smaller, causes the ping pong balls to collide more frequently and vigorously, and thereby increases the pressure on the walls of the room. Increasing space has the opposite effect. Creating an actual room full of ping pong balls may be impractical, of course, but the model can still be imagined.<\/p>\n<p>Modeling in this second sense is not about altering students\u2019 behavior, but about increasing their understanding of a newly learned idea, theory, or phenomenon. The model itself uses objects or events that are already familiar to students\u2014simple balls and their behavior when colliding\u2014and in this way supports students\u2019 learning of new, unfamiliar material. Not every new concept or idea lends itself to such modeling, but many do: students can create models of unfamiliar animals, for example, or of medieval castles, or of ecological systems. Two-dimensional models\u2014essentially drawings\u2014can also be helpful: students can illustrate literature or historical events, or make maps of their own neighborhoods. The choice of model depends largely on the specific curriculum goals which the teacher needs to accomplish at a particular time.<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Coaching<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>Coaching is that stage of the instructional process during which the learner converts\u00a0memories into actions as a result of the modeling process. This is the aspect of instruction we\u00a0usually think of as teaching. Coaching is the most physically and mentally demanding of the\u00a0four teaching activities and typically takes up the most time in a lesson.\u00a0Effective coaching requires:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>establishing accountability<\/li>\n<li><strong>providing opportunities for practice<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>guiding practice by prompting and questioning<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>motivating.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><strong>Establishing Accountability<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>The following extract from a student teacher\u2019s diary describes a\u00a0common teaching problem:<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">School seems to mean so little for many of my kids. They can do the work but they\u00a0just sit there and wait to be reminded or threatened. Take Bart. He comes into class,\u00a0looks at me when I\u2019m giving the class assignment, but then sits and does nothing until I\u00a0remind him to get to work. He works for a while and then stops until the next\u00a0reminder. What work he does is about 25 percent correct. During discussions he never\u00a0listens to what anyone else is saying. I have about five or six Barts in every one of my\u00a0eighth-grade classes. (Beth, student teacher)<\/div>\n<p>This excerpt describes what many beginning teachers encounter when it is time for practice or\u00a0classwork. It is tempting to assume, like Beth, that the problem is motivation: the students\u00a0just don\u2019t care. Research by Kounin (1970) and Emmer, Evertson, Clements, and Worsham\u00a0(1994), however, point us in another direction. They suggest that incomplete, sloppy, or\u00a0missed assignments and an \u201cI don\u2019t care\u201d attitude may reflect the teacher\u2019s failure to make\u00a0learners feel accountable during the coaching stage of the lesson.<\/p>\n<p>Accountability is the degree to which teachers communicate to learners the classwork they\u00a0are expected to complete during a specific period of time. The more learners are told what\u00a0they are responsible for, the greater the accountability for learning. From research by Emmer\u00a0et al. (1994), we learn that there are <strong>three aspects to accountability: <\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 80px\">(1) communication<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 80px\">(2) monitoring<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 80px\">(3) feedback<\/p>\n<p>The accompanying box, Establishing Accountability, details the steps you can take.<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of Beth\u2019s student teaching, she became much more skilled at establishing\u00a0accountability. Here is an excerpt from her cooperating teacher\u2019s evaluation of her\u00a0performance during her last week of student teaching:<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\" style=\"text-align: left\">Beth, like many new teachers, tended to hide immediately after giving an assignment.\u00a0She would sit at her desk and avoid even looking at students. She hoped that the students would begin work immediately and everyone would know exactly what to do.\u00a0She hadn\u2019t developed the skill of anticipating problems and giving clear step-by-step\u00a0directions. No sooner would she sit down than students would swarm to her desk with\u00a0questions about what they were expected to do.\u00a0As time passed, she learned to move about the room during the work activity,\u00a0question learners who were having problems, and encourage those who were doing\u00a0well. Now, even when the class is working quietly, she continues to move about the\u00a0room encouraging, praising, and prompting.<\/div>\n<h3><strong>Providing Opportunities For Practice<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>The purpose of practice is to engage learners actively in the learning process. During structuring and modeling, students listen, observe, covertly rehearse, or make brief responses to your questions as you check for understanding. But they\u00a0have not yet had the opportunity to practice and master the skills you modeled, the\u00a0information you conveyed, or the problem-solving techniques you demonstrated. During the\u00a0coaching phase of instruction, learners begin to practice the objectives of your lesson.<\/p>\n<p>Practice has historically been associated with drill (Ornstein, 1992) and direct instructional\u00a0methods (Borich, 1996). It has been strongly emphasized in behavioristic approaches to\u00a0learning that stress the importance of building stimulus-response connections (Hilgard &amp;\u00a0Bower, 1981). Mastery learning and errorless learning methods also incorporate extensive\u00a0practice and drill (Bloom, 1981).<\/p>\n<p>However, practice is essential for accomplishing the goals of any instructional\u00a0method\u2014direct, indirect, or self-directed. Depending on the instructional method used and\u00a0the desired objective, practice can take many forms. During direct instruction, practice may\u00a0take the form of repeating multiplication tables or letters of the alphabet. It may also involve\u00a0independent seatwork and the use of workbooks. Practice during indirect instruction may\u00a0occur when the teacher places learners in small groups to solve science or math problems\u00a0cooperatively. It may also occur when students complete problem-solving handouts and\u00a0worksheets. During self-directed learning, practice may take the form of reciprocal teaching\u00a0within the naturally occurring dialogue of the classroom. It may also\u00a0involve completing extended projects and investigations at a learning center, at home, or in<br \/>\nthe library.<\/p>\n<p>Regardless of the type of practice activity used, there are several guidelines for promoting\u00a0effective practice:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Students should understand the reasons for practice<\/strong>. Practice often turns into busywork, which can create boredom, frustration, and noncompliance. Learners should\u00a0approach classroom practice with the enthusiasm experienced by an athlete in training. This is\u00a0more likely to occur if (1) the purpose of the practice has been made known to learners (\u201cWe\u00a0will need to be proficient at solving these problems in order to go on to our next activity\u201d)\u00a0and (2) practice occurs during as well as after new learning (\u201cLet\u2019s stop right here, so you can\u00a0try some of these problems yourselves\u201d).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Effective practice is delivered in a manner that is brief, nonevaluative, and\u00a0supportive.<\/strong> Eliciting practice involves more than simply saying \u201cOK. Take out your books,\u00a0turn to page 78, and answer questions 1, 3, 7, and 9. You have 20 minutes.\u201d Rather, your\u00a0introduction to a practice activity should accomplish three objectives: (1) inform the learners\u00a0that they are going to practice something they are capable of succeeding at (\u201cYou\u2019ve done\u00a0part of this before, so this shouldn\u2019t be much different\u201d), (2) dispel anxiety about doing the\u00a0task through the use of nonevaluative and non-threatening language (\u201cYou\u2019ve got part of it\u00a0right, Anita; now, think some more and you\u2019ll have it\u201d), and (3) let the learners know that<br \/>\nyou will be around to monitor their work and support their efforts (\u201cI will be around to help,\u00a0so let me know if you have a problem\u201d).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Practice should be designed to ensure success.<\/strong> Practice makes perfect only when it is\u00a0done correctly. If your learners are making many math, punctuation, or problem-solving\u00a0mistakes, practice is making imperfect. Design your practice to produce as few errors as\u00a0possible. For example, worksheets should be developed to ensure that at least 80 to 90 percent\u00a0of the problems are completed correctly.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Practice should be arranged to allow students to receive feedback<\/strong>. As we learned\u00a0earlier in our discussion of modeling, feedback exerts a powerful effect on learning. Develop\u00a0procedures and routines for rapid checking of work so that learners know as soon as possible<br \/>\nhow well they are performing. Having peers correct one another\u2019s practice is an efficient way\u00a0to give feedback. Also, having answer sheets handy so that learners can check their own work\u00a0can be a simple and effective means of providing feedback.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Practice should have the qualities of progress, challenge, and variety<\/strong>. Kounin\u00a0(1970) found that the key to preventing learners from becoming bored was to design practice\u00a0opportunities that allow them to see that they are making progress (\u201cDon\u2019t forget to check\u00a0your answers with the key on the board\u201d). In addition, practice should be introduced in a\u00a0challenging and enthusiastic manner (\u201cThis will really test your understanding with some new\u00a0and interesting kinds of problems\u201d). Finally, practice exercises should include a variety of\u00a0examples and situations.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><strong>Guided Practice, Independent Practice, and Homework<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>We typically think of practice as a solitary\u00a0activity during which learners master skills that have been explained or demonstrated by the\u00a0teacher. This type of practice is often referred to as independent practice. However, other\u00a0forms of practice involve the active participation of both teacher and learners, whether one-to-one or in groups. This type of practice is called guided practice. Much of this task involves helping students to make the transition from supervised learning to self-regulated learning\u2014or put differently, from practice that is relatively guided to practice that is relatively independent.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Video:<\/strong> Structuring and delivering your lessons requires a plan that has a deliberate progression in which responsibility for being able to do the work is gradually transferred from teacher to student. (4:54 minutes)<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Teach Like a Champion Technique Supplement: I\/We\/You\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Lhg4vYgE9TI?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h4>Guided Practice<\/h4>\n<p>When students first learn a new skill or a new set of ideas, they are especially likely to encounter problems and make mistakes that interfere with the very process of learning. In figuring out how to use a new software program, for example, a student may unknowingly press a wrong button that prevents further functioning of the program. In translating sentences from Spanish into English in a language class, for another example, a student might misinterpret one particular word or grammatical feature. This one mistake may cause many sentences to be translated incorrectly, and so on. So students initially need\u00a0<strong>guided practice<\/strong>\u2014opportunities to work somewhat independently, but with a teacher or other expert close at hand prevent or fix difficulties when they occur. In general, educational research has found that guided practice helps all learners, but especially those who are struggling (Bryan &amp; Burstein, 2004: Woodward, 2004). A first-grade child has difficulty in decoding printed words, for example, benefits from guidance more than one who can decode easily. But both students benefit in the initial stages of learning, since both may make more mistakes then. Guided practice, by its nature, sends a dual message to students: it is important to learn new material well, but it is also important to become able to use learning\u00a0<em>without<\/em>\u00a0assistance, beyond the lesson where it is learned and even beyond the classroom.<\/p>\n<p>Guided practice is much like the concepts of the\u00a0<em>zone of proximal development<\/em>\u00a0(or\u00a0<em>ZPD<\/em>) and\u00a0<em>instructional scaffolding<\/em>\u00a0that we discussed in connection with Vygotsky\u2019s theory of learning. In essence, during guided practice, the teacher creates a ZPD or scaffold (or framework) in which the student can accomplish more with partial knowledge or skill than the student could accomplish alone. But whatever its name\u2014guided practice, a ZPD, or a scaffold\u2014ensuring the success of guidance depends on several key elements: focusing on the task at hand, asking questions that break the task into manageable parts, reframing or restating the task so that it becomes more understandable, and giving frequent feedback about the student\u2019s progress (Rogoff, 2003). Combining the elements appropriately takes sensitivity and improvisational skill\u2014even artfulness\u2014but these very challenges are among the true joys of teaching.<\/p>\n<h4>Independent Practice<\/h4>\n<p>As students gain facility with a new skill or new knowledge, they tend to need less guidance and more time to consolidate (or strengthen) their new knowledge with additional practice. Since they are less likely to encounter mistakes or problems at this point, they begin to benefit from\u00a0<strong>independent practice<\/strong>\u2014opportunities to review and repeat their knowledge at their own pace and with fewer interruptions. At this point, therefore, guided practice may feel less like help than like an interruption, even if it is well-intentioned. A student who already knows how to use a new computer program, for example, may be frustrated by waiting for the teacher to explain each step of the program individually. If a student is already skillful at translating Spanish sentences into English in a language class, it can be annoying for the teacher to \u201chelp\u201d by pointing out minor errors that the student is likely to catch for herself.<\/p>\n<p>By definition, the purpose of independent practice is to provide more self-regulation of learning than what comes from guided practice. It implies a different message for students than what is conveyed by guided practice, a message that goes beyond the earlier one: that it is now time to take more complete responsibility for own learning. When all goes well, independent practice is the eventual outcome of the zone of proximal development created during the earlier phase of guided practice described above: the student can now do on his or her own, what originally required assistance from someone else. Or stated differently, independent practice is a way of encouraging\u00a0<em>self-determination<\/em>\u00a0about learning. In order to work independently, a student must set his or her own direction and monitor his or her own success; by definition, no one can do this for the student.<\/p>\n<h4>Homework<\/h4>\n<p>The chances are that you already have experienced many forms of homework in your own educational career. The widespread practice of assigning review work to do outside of school is a way of supplementing scarce time in class and of providing independent practice for students. Homework has generated controversy throughout most of its history in public education, partly because it encroaches on students\u2019 personal and family-oriented time, and partly because research finds no consistent benefits of doing homework (Gill &amp; Schlossman, 2004; Kohn, 2004). In spite of these criticisms, though, parents and teachers tend to favor homework when it is used for two main purposes. One purpose is to review and practice material that has already been introduced and practiced at school; a sheet of arithmetic problems might be a classic example. When used for this purpose, the amount of homework is usually minimal in the earliest grades, if any is assigned at all. One educational expert recommends only ten minutes per day in first grade at most, and only gradual increases in amount as students get older (Cooper &amp; Valentine, 2001).<\/p>\n<p>The second purpose of supporting homework is to convey the idea of schoolwork being the \u201cjob\u201d of childhood and youth. Just as on an adult job, students must complete homework tasks with minimal supervision and sometimes even minimal training. Doing the tasks, furthermore, is a way to get ahead or further along in the workplace (for an adult) or at school (for a child). One study in which researchers interviewed children about these ideas, in fact, found that children do indeed regard homework as work in the same way that adults think of a job (Cornu &amp; Xu, 2004). In the children\u2019s minds, homework tasks were not \u201cfun,\u201d in spite of teachers\u2019 frequent efforts to make them fun. Instead, they were jobs that needed doing, much like household chores. When it came to homework, children regarded parents as the teachers\u2019 assistants\u2014people merely carrying out the wishes of the teacher. Like any\u00a0job, the job of doing homework varied in stressfulness; when required at an appropriate amount and level of difficulty, and when children reported having good \u201cbosses\u201d (parents and teachers), the job of homework could actually be satisfying in the way that many adults\u2019 jobs can be satisfying when well-done.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Motivating Learners<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Successful groups of learners, no less than successful teams of athletes,\u00a0demand that their coaches be skilled motivators. The expert practice of coaching, therefore,\u00a0requires that teachers be skilled at motivating learners. The learning that is elicited and\u00a0strengthened during guided practice must be maintained, generalized, and transferred outside\u00a0of practice. Your knowledge of motivation acquired and your ability to instill it\u00a0in your learners will help this take place.<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Fading<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Although all four teaching activities include elements of transfer of learning, fading is the\u00a0event that most directly achieves it. The expert practice of fading, whether used during direct,\u00a0indirect, or self-directed instruction, involves two steps:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">The removal of any external supports required to activate learning (for example, prompts and reinforcers).<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">The provision of independent practice that promotes transfer.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h3><sub><strong>Prompt Fading<\/strong><\/sub><\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">The teaching of many action sequences, such as testing a hypothesis, forming\u00a0correct letters in handwriting, tying knots, focusing a microscope, or dissecting a frog,\u00a0frequently requires prompts to guide correct responses. Likewise, prompts are frequently\u00a0required to help learners develop oral language proficiency, essay writing, and problem-solving skills. These prompts may be verbal, gestural, or physical.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">You can fade verbal prompts by gradually using fewer words or shorter explanations,\u00a0allowing more time for learner response, or lowering the sound of your voice as the student\u00a0begins to work more skillfully and independently. We often fade gestural prompts by\u00a0gradually shortening the length of the gesture from a full arm sweep, for example, to a short\u00a0pointing response. Physical prompts can be faded by slowly moving your assistance from<br \/>\nhand-over-hand, to guiding the wrist, to lightly touching the forearm, to lightly tapping the\u00a0elbow. Delaying the fading of prompts can lead to prompt dependency. Conversely, removing\u00a0prompts too soon can create frustration and anxiety in the learner.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Reinforcer Fading<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">The purpose of reinforcer fading is to gradually transfer the motivation\u00a0for performing a skill from extrinsic reinforcers (such as food, tokens, stickers, and praise) to\u00a0intrinsic reinforcers. It is more desirable and natural for learners to read because they enjoy it\u00a0than because their parents give them a dollar for every book they read. Likewise, we want\u00a0learners to keep the classroom neat and to play sports or musical instruments for the\u00a0enjoyment of the activity rather than to obtain a grade.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Providing Independent Practice That Promotes Transfer<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>The following first-person account\u00a0describes one of the most vexing problems in teaching: how to help students demonstrate their\u00a0learning in new situations and settings.<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Yesterday afternoon I had the most frustrating experience. I was walking to the subway\u00a0after school and I ran into Gabriel, one of my ESL (English as a Second Language)\u00a0students. We had just spent the last two days drilling the future tense of \u201cgoing to,\u201d as\u00a0in \u201cWhat are you going to do tomorrow?\u201d So I said, \u201cGabriel, what are you going to\u00a0do tonight?\u201d And do you know what he said after two days of drill and practice? \u201cI\u00a0went to finish my homework tonight.\u201d Not \u201cwant\u201d \u2026but \u201cwent.\u201d He completely mixed\u00a0up the past and future tenses. I don\u2019t know how these kids are ever going to learn this\u00a0stuff. (Author, personal experience)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Transfer of learning is the phrase used to describe this problem. Teachers want their\u00a0students to transfer their learning, or generalize it from the classroom to the world outside the\u00a0classroom. Of what value is learning how to speak or write grammatically correct English,\u00a0solve math problems, type with accuracy, read poetry, plan a menu, or use logic if these skills\u00a0are practiced only in a classroom under the guidance of a teacher?<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Transfer of learning is a central concern whether you are engaged in direct, indirect, or\u00a0self-directed instruction\u2014that is, whether you want learners to acquire facts, rules, and action\u00a0sequences; concepts, patterns, and abstractions; or learn how to learn. Regardless of which\u00a0instructional method you choose or what the goal or objective of instruction is, effective\u00a0instruction should culminate in the learner\u2019s demonstrating her learning in a new or different\u00a0context.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of guided practice during coaching is to help learners acquire new\u00a0intellectual, social, and motor skills. The purpose of independent practice during fading is to\u00a0help learners transfer those skills to real-world contexts. Achieving this goal requires teachers\u00a0to design independent practice with transfer in mind. Independent practice that promotes\u00a0transfer should:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>emphasize mastery by beginning after learners have mastered the original task that\u00a0has been modeled for them<\/li>\n<li>have real-world similarity by being completed under the same time constraints and\u00a0with the same distractions that exist in the real world<\/li>\n<li>provide variety by giving learners as many different examples and situations as\u00a0possible on which to practice, using a variety of sources, such as fiction, editorials,\u00a0poetry, and magazines<\/li>\n<li>offer flexibility by changing the conditions, locations, and peers under which practice\u00a0occurs<\/li>\n<li>promote self-direction by asking learners to identify examples where they can use\u00a0their skills, such as measurement, punctuation, money management, scientific\u00a0inquiry, and classifying objects, and to monitor their own progress.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<div><strong>References<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL<\/div>\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\n<li>Delivering Instruction.\u00a0<strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Nicole Arduini-Van Hoose.\u00a0<strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Hudson Valley Community College.\u00a0<strong>Located at<\/strong>:\u00a0.\u00a0<strong>License<\/strong>:\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY<\/div>\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\n<li>Educational Psychology.\u00a0<strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton.\u00a0<strong>Provided by<\/strong>: The Saylor Foundation.\u00a0<strong>Located at<\/strong>:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/educationalpsychology\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/educationalpsychology<\/a>.\u00a0<strong>License<\/strong>:\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<li>Educational Psychology.\u00a0<strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Gary D. Borich and Martin L. Tombari.\u00a0<strong>License<\/strong>:\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION<\/div>\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\n<li>Teach Like a Champion Technique 12&#8211;The Hook.\u00a0<strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Kaizen Teaching.\u00a0<strong>Located at<\/strong>:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/cArUHPZjilc\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/youtu.be\/cArUHPZjilc<\/a>.\u00a0<strong>License<\/strong>:\u00a0<em>All Rights Reserved<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Teach Like a Champion Technique Supplement: I\/We\/You.\u00a0<strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Kaizen Teaching.\u00a0<strong>Located at<\/strong>:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/Lhg4vYgE9TI\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/youtu.be\/Lhg4vYgE9TI<\/a>.\u00a0<strong>License<\/strong>:\u00a0<em>All Rights Reserved<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Image source Image by\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/users\/14995841-14995841\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=4784917\">14995841<\/a>\u00a0from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=4784917\">Pixabay<\/a><\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":11,"menu_order":17,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[49],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-74","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-numberless"],"part":18,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/74","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/11"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/74\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":138,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/74\/revisions\/138"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/18"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/74\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=74"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=74"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=74"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.usnh.edu\/edc703-803\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=74"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}